




















































' ' 





















































































SKELETON CONSTRUCTION 
IN BUILDINGS. 


WITH 

NUMEROUS PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS 
OP HIGH BUILDINGS. 


/ 



WILLIAM H. BIRKMIRE, 

h 

Author of “Architectural Iron and Steel” 
and 

*' Compound Riveted Girders as Applied in the Construction of Buildings.** 



JOHN WILEY & SONS, 
53 East Tenth Street. 

1893. 



Copyright, 

b v 

Wm. H. Birkmire. 



\ 


PREFACE. 


The author has endeavored in this volume to describe 
and illustrate the method of skeleton-constructed buildings; a 
new type of structure, which calls for principles entirely differ¬ 
ent from the old system of cast-iron fronts and cast-dowelled 
columns with wooden girders. 

He has been induced to prepare it from the fact that the 
improvements in modern iron construction, especially in high 
buildings, has been so rapid during the past few years that no 
work, however recent, meets the latest requirements. 

Notwithstanding the fact that the subject of the strength 
of columns has been ably treated of again and again, tables of 
tests of various-shaped columns are given, and in a few chap¬ 
ters especial stress has been laid upon the advantages and dis¬ 
advantages of different shapes of iron and steel in columns 
for making rigid connections with the floor beams, curtain-wall 
girders and with each other—a necessary requirement, indis¬ 
pensable to good construction. Other chapters are devoted to 
the details and calculations attending the erection of high build¬ 
ings using the skeleton construction,—the system of wind-brac¬ 
ing, curtain-wall supports, and foundations. 

Wm. H. BlRKMIRE. 

New York, April, 1893. 

iii 








































TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER I. 

General and Descriptive. 

PAGE 

Development of the Skeleton Construction. i 

The Skeleton Construction and how Composed. 2 

Conditions imposed by the New York Building Law upon the Use of Cur¬ 
tain Walls. 2 

Variations of the Skeleton Construction. 2 

Representative Chicago High Buildings. 3 

The Woman’s Christian Temperance Union Building, Chicago. 4 

The Owings Building, Chicago. 5 

The German Opera House, Chicago. 6 

The Masonic Temple, Chicago. 8 

Representative New York High Buildings. 9 

New Netherlands, N. Y. 9 

The World Building, N. Y. 12 

The Manhattan Life Insurance Building, N. Y.. 14 

New York Sun Building. 10 

New York Building Law in Relation to Skeleton Construction. 13 

CHAPTER II. 

Columns. 

Buildings of New York in which Cast-iron Columns are Used. 20 

“ “ Chicago “ “ “ “ “ “ . 20 

“ “ New York “ “ Wrought-iron and Steel Columns are Used. 20 

The Height of Buildings Using Cast-iron compared with those Using 

Wrought-iron and Steel Columns. 21 

Cast-iron Columns. 21 

Wrought-iron and Steel Columns. 22 

The Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Shapes of Compound Sec¬ 
tions. 24 

Cost of Columns. 24 

Availability of Material for Columns... 25 

The Advantages of Different Shapes of Columns for Connections. 25 


v 



























VI 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

The New York Building Law Relating to the Strength of Columns. 26 

Strength of Cast-iron Columns. . 28 

Factors of Safety for Cast-iron Columns. 3 1 

Strength of Wrought-iron and Steel Columns. 32 

Tests of Phoenix Columns. Table. 33 

“ “ Latticed “ “ 34 

“ “ Z-bar “ “ 34 

“ “ Wrought-iron Box Columns. Table.. . 35 

Strength of Steel Column. 35 

Ultimate Strength of Wrought-iron Columns. Table. 36 

Elements of Z-bar Columns. Tables. 37 

Safe Load on “ “ “ .39 to 45 

Safe Load for Phoenix “ “ . 46 

Dimensions of “ “ “ . 47 


CHAPTER III. 


Column Connections. 

Cast-iron Column with Wooden Girders. . 49 

“ “ Connection in the Skeleton Frame. 52 

Z-Bar Column Connection... 53 

Phoenix “ “ .i. 56 

Connection of Column Sections made up of Angles and Plates. 58 

Rivet Spacing in Column Connections. 61 


CHAPTER IV. 


Floor Loads and Floor Framing. 

Dead Loads. 63 

Live Loads. 63 

New York Building Law of 1892 in Relation to Floor Loads. 63 

Chicago Practice Relating to the Calculation of the Dead and Live Load 

upon Floors. 64 

Floor Framing. 66 

To Determine Coefficient for Beams. 67 

Properties of Wrought-iron I-Beams. 6S 

Deflection. 68 

Coefficient for Steel Beams. 69 

Properties of Steel I-beams. 69 

“ “ Wrought-iron Channels. ;o 

“ Steel Channels . 71 

Beam Connections. 72 

New York Building Law Relating to Beam Connections. 73 

Floor Arches. 77 

Brick Arches. 78 






































TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


Vll 


PAGE 


Porous Terra-cotta Arches. 78 

Concrete Arches. 80 

Weight of Porous Terra-cotta Blocks. 80 

Corrugated Iron and Steel Arches. .. . 81 

The Gustavino Tile Arch. 81 

Tie-rods. 82 


CHAPTER V. 

Examples of High Buildings. 
The Home Life Insurance Building 


Floor Plan. 86 

Beam “ . 86 

Curtain Walls. 89 

Columns and Girders. 90 

Table of Material in the Steel Column with Loads. 92 

“ “ “ “ “ “ Girders . 94 


SPECIFICATION. 

General. 

Quality of Steel. 

Rivet Steel. 

Workmanship. 

Framing of Top Story and Spire. 

Painting at the Works. 

Anchors. 

Painting at the Building. 

Cast Iron.. 

Lintels. 

Base for Wrought-iron Smoke Flue... . 

Plates. 

Door to Flue. 

Frame to Ash-lift.• 

Vault Lights. 

Curved Skylight. 

Coal-hole Covers. 

Sills to Doors to Roof. 

Bronze Saddles... 

Cast-iron Mullion. 

Columns to Elevator Shaft. . 


Stairs. 

Guards to Elevator Shaft 


95 

96 

97 

97 

98 
98 

98 

99 
101 
101 

IOI 

IOI 

IOI 

IOI 

101 

102 
102 
102 
102 
102 
103 
103 
103 
104 







































TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


viii 

PAGE 

Electro-plating. 104 

Partition to Cellar Stairs. 105 

Main Entrance Doors... 105 

Wrought-iron Boiler Flue. 105 

Furring . 10b 

Floors beneath Elevators. ... 106 

Skylight over Main Office and Elevators.106 

Glass under Skylight. 106 

Skylights in Top Story. 107 

Floor Lights... . 107 

Window Guards. 107 

Grating Doors over Ash-lift.. . 107 

Platform over Elevators. . 107 

Clamps. 108 

General. . 108 

CHAPTER VI. 

The Havemeyer Building. 

Floor Plan.. . no 

Beam “ . m 

Column Detail, Sway-bracing. ji6 

Table of Materials in the Columns with Loads. 118 

SPECIFICATION. 

Conditions. . . It g 

Time of Completion.. I2 o 

Payments. I2 i 

Sub-contract. .. I22 

Materials and Workmanship. I22 

Delivery and Storage. I22 

Wrought Iron. I2 ^ 

Steel.. I24 

Cast Iron... jo . 

Tests . ill 

Construction of Works. I24 

Setting. I2g 

Painting. ..... I29 

Beams and Channel-bars. I2 g 

Girders.. 

Box Girders. 

Tie-rods. 

Anchors, Straps, Clamps, etc. 

Tie-rods.. I34 

Sway-braces. n . 









































TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX 

PAGE 

Lintels of Cast Iron. 135 

Pillars of Wrought Iron. 136 

Posts. *. 137 

Cast-iron Base-plates . 137 

Roofs. 138 

Staircases. 138 

.Ladders. 140 

Railings. 141 

Gates. 141 

Guards. 142 

Grille-work. 142 

Gratings. w . 142 

Partitions, Enclosures, Floors, etc. 142 

Iron Shutters. 144 

Iron Doors. 145 

Posts for Doors. 145 

Light Cast-iron Work. 145 

Deck and Tank House. 146 

Patent Lights. 146 

Boiler Flue. 148 

Elevator Fronts. 149 

Sidewalk Elevator. 150 

Miscellaneous. .- 15 1 

CHAPTER VII. 

The Jackson Building. 

Floor Beam Spacing. 152 

Calculation for Floor Weights. ... 153 

Column Connections. *53 

CHAPTER VIII. 

The New Netherland, New York. 

Floor Plan. !58 

Beam Plan. r 58 

Columns. 

Foundation for Columns. 163 

Wall Thicknesses. ^3 

Table of Columns. 

The Waldorf, N. Y. 166 

Floor Plan. *66 

Beam Plan. 

The Postal Telegraph Building, N. Y . 170 






































X 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER IX. 


Wind-bracing. 

Wind Pressure... 174 

Wind-bracing in the Venetian Building, Chicago. 174 

Curtain Walls. 178 

“ Wall Supports. 179 

Foundations. 182 

To determine the Nature of the Soil.... . 183 

Foundation upon Rock. 183 

“ “ Clay. 184 

“ Sand. 184 

“ “ Piles. 184 

“ “ Steel Rails and I-beams... 186 













LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


CHAPTER I. 

Fig. i. The Woman's Christian Temperance Union Building, Chicago, Ill. 

2. The Owings Building, Chicago, Ill.. 

3. The German Opera House, Chicago, Ill. 

4. The Masonic Building, Chicago, Ill. 

5. The Proposed New York Sun Building.* 

6. The World Building, N. Y. . 

7. Manhattan Life Insurance Building, N. Y. 


CHAPTER II. 


8 . 

9 - 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13 . 

14. 
15 - 

16. 

17 . 

18. 

19. 

20. 

21. 

22. 

23. 

24. 
25 - 

26. 

27. 

28. 

29. 

30 . 




Cast-iron H-Column with Open Web.. . 

“ “ “ Closed** ... 

Rectangular Column Section 

n (i a 

Double “ “ 

Circular “ ** 

Z-Bar Column Section. 


with Cover Plates. 


Z-Bar Column Section Used in Venetian Building, Chicago. 

Column Section of Angles and Plates. 

“ “ “ “ with Web and Cover Plates. 

Box Column Section. 


Phoenix Column Section. .>. 

Rectangular Wrought-iron or Steel Column Sections. 


Octagons “ ** “ “ ** . 

Channel Column Section.. 

“ Latticed “ . 

Box Column with Plates and Latticing. 

Plate and Box Column Section showing Notation as Used in the 

Calculation for the Moment of Inertia. 

xi 


PAGE 

4 

5 

6 
8 

10 

12 

14 


21 

21 

21 

21 

21 

21 

22 
22 
22 
22 
22 
22 
22 

22 

23 
23 
23 
23 
23 
23 

23 

23 

36 
































list of Illustrations . 


xii 


CHAPTER III. 

PAGE 

Fig* 3L 3 2 * Cast-iron Column Connections; with Wooden Girders.49, 50 

33. “ “ “ “ Iron Girders. 51 

34. “ “ “ in the Skeleton Frame. 52 

35. 36. Z-bar Column Connections . 54 . 55 

37. Phoenix “ “ . 57 

38. Wrought-iron or Steel Box Column Connections. 58 

39. Wrought-iron or Steel Column Connections made up of Plates 

and Angles. 59 


CHAPTER IV. 


40. Beam Connections. 76 

41. Porous Terra-cotta Arches and Ceilings. 79 

42. 43. ''rrugated Arches. 82 

CHAPTER V. 

45. Home Life Insurance Building, New York, Front Elevation. 84 

46. Beam Plan as Constructed. 87 

47. Floor Plan as originally Started. 88 

48. Beam “ “ “ “ . 88 

49. Section and Part Elevation of Rear Wall showing Mullions and 

Facias. 90 

50. Transverse Section of Masonry, Elevations of Columns and Floor 

Girders. 91 

51. Transverse Section. 97 

52. Longitudinal “ 100 


CHAPTER VI. 


53. Havemeyer Building. . . 109 

54. Typical Floor Plan. 111 

55. Beam Plan. 112 

56. Roof Plan. 113 

57. Foundation Plan. 113 

58. Transverse Section. 115 

59. Detail of Sway Braces. 115 

60. Column and Base-plate Detail. 117 

61. Boiler Flue.... 118 

CHAPTER VII. 

62. Front Elevation, Jackson Building. 151 

63. Typical Floor Plan. 152 

64. Column Connections.. .. 153 

































LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Xlll 


65. 

66 . 


67. 

68 . 

69. 

70. 

71. 

72. 

73 - 

74 - 

75 - 
76. 
77 - 


78 . 

79 . 

80. 

81. 

82. 

83. 

84. 

85. 

86 . 

87 . 

88 . 

89. 

90. 


PAGE 

Double Beam Girder Connection with Cast Column. 154 

Detail of Top of Column showing Girder Supporting Upper Walls. 154 

CHAPTER VIII. 


The New Netherland, New York..... 157 

Floor Plan. 159 

Beam Plan.,. 160 

Column Detail. . 162 

Section of Court Wall. 164 

Wall Section above the Eighth Story. 164 

“ “ below “ “ “ . 164 

The Waldorf, New York. 167 

Floor Plan. 168 

Beam Plan over Dining Room.. . 169 

Postal Telegraph Building, New York. 171 

CHAPTER IX. 

Venetian Building, Chicago, Ill. 173 

Typical Floor Plan of Venetian Building.... 175 

Part Transverse Section of “ “ . 176 

Wind-strain Diagram of “ “ .. 176 

Section of Curtain Wall supported by two I Beams.179 

“ “ “ “ “ “ Plate Girder. 179 

“ “ “ “ ** “ two Channels. 180 

“ “ “ “ “ “ Plate Girder.180 

“ “ Spandrel Support in Venetian Building, Chicago. 181 

“ “ “ “ “ Ashland Block, Chicago. 181 

“ “ “ “ •« “ “ “ 182 

“ “ “ “ “ the Fair Building, “ 182 

Plan and Elevation of a Steel-rail Foundation... 186 












































. 






’ 

. 

































































































































SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL AND DESCRIPTIVE. 

The method of skeleton construction has been developed 
by the use of iron and steel in the erection of fire-proof build¬ 
ings, and it seems to have solved the problem of economizing 
space in the lower floors of high and narrow buildings. In 
the ordinary methods of building, the higher the wall the 
thicker it must be at its lower parts, but the lower stories are 
the most valuable; yet it is in these that the greatest area of 
a valuable lot must be surrendered to enormously thick walls. 
Therefore, every foot gained on the inside measurements 
increases the availibility of the structure. 

In the buildings where the skeleton construction is used 
throughout, heavy masonry walls are not known, and what 
appears to be such in the finished state is simply a veneer of 
some fire-proof material, yet the frame of the building is not 
a mere heap of beams and columns; but as one example after 
another is erected we find that the details and connections are 
being carefuly studied, and the whole braced and anchored so 
completely that the metal construction may be raised hun¬ 
dreds of feet from foundation to roof without the aid of any 
masonry—a great metal structure, strong in its own strength, 
not only to carry the direct loads which may be placed upon 



2 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS . 


it, but also to resist all lateral strains to which it may be sub¬ 
jected. 

The architectural appearance of our large cities is being 
rapidly altered by this new system. It imposes no new con¬ 
ditions on the architect, except as to the engineering of the 
metal frame; and in a few years, with the skill already dis¬ 
played in treating these problems, many new designs will be 
brought forth, notwithstanding the great height to which they 
are built. 

The skeleton construction consists in the use of cast-iron, 
wrought-iron, or wrought-steel columns in the side-walls, con¬ 
nected longitudinally at the floor levels with beams, lattice or 
compound riveted girders supporting the thin curtain walls 
12 to 20 inches in thickness; in addition the weight of the 
floors are transmitted to the longitudinal girders and columns, 
so that the latter support the entire building. 

The thin curtain walls are generally built of brick, and 
extend from the top of any wall girder to the underside of the 
next story girders, extending a sufficient distance outside to 
cover the girders and columns with masonry, and continue in 
this manner to the top of the building. 

The New York building law imposes certain conditions 
upon the use of the curtain walls, in that the curtain walls of 
the lower stories shall be built thicker. Why this is so the 
author has not been able to determine, as a 12-inch wall from 
foundation to roof resting upon these wall girders would seem 
sufficient for all purposes. 

There are some variations in the use of the skeleton frame 
which will also be fully illustrated and described in the pages 
to follow. In some cases the frame work of columns and 
girders are carried up to within four or five stories of the roof ; 
then continuous girders are placed upon the top of columns 
to support the upper stories of masonry walls. 

In some cases the columns begin at the base course on 
stone, iron, or steel beams. 


GENERAL AND DESCRIPTIVE. 


3 


In others from the top of foundation-walls level with the 
sidewalk or curb level. 

Another variation is where the walls and columns are sep¬ 
arated, the walls built heavy enough to carry their own weight, 
and the columns support the floor and their loads. 

Then again the longitudinal girders may be placed in every 
second floor, and the walls are made 20 to 24 inches in thick¬ 
ness below the fourth or fifth tier. 

When the first examples of the skeleton construction were 
completed many questions were raised, and no doubt there 
exists in the minds of many at the present time that the 
greater expansion of one material over another might work 
some trouble. Events have proven that the temperature of 
this climate from the greatest cold to the greatest heat exerts 
no appreciable effect, especially while the metal is covered 
with masonry or some fire-proof material. 

Representative Chicago High Buildings.—Very many 
journals have been devoting much space to descriptions of the 
steel skeleton type of buildings, more especially those of Chi¬ 
cago, and the majority of writers call it the “ Chicago Steel 
Skeleton Construction.” 

There can be no doubt that Chicago’s business districts has 
undergone a remarkable transformation within a few years, as 
any one who visits that city to-day would scarcely believe 
that, something like eight years ago, the tallest buildings were 
not ever eight stories high. 

Immediately after the Great Fire that totally ruined the 
business district, the city was built up hurriedly ; many hand¬ 
some buildings were erected, and these have been torn down 
to give way to very high structures, which command much 
admiration throughout the country. 

One of the first of the many tall buildings erected was the 
Montauk Block, which stands on Monroe Street, just west of 
Dearborn. It was built about eight years ago, and is ten 


4 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


stories high. When contrasted with some of the latest struct¬ 
ures it is comparatively insignificant. 

The Woman’s Christian Temperance Union Building, as 
shown in the above engraving, Fig. i, popularly called the 



Fig. i. 


Woman's Temple, because it was built by the ladies of that 
organization from contributions raised in small sums in all 
parts of the country, is perhaps the handsomest big building 
in Chicago. Its lines are so proportioned that its enormous 
height rarely elicits comment. 













GENERAL AND DESCRIPTIVE. 


5 


Then, again, the Owing’s Building, Fig. 2, situated on 
Dearborn and Adams Streets, on account of its immense 
height, as contrasted with its slim frontage, is one of the nota¬ 
ble structures of Chicago. The German Opera House, Fig. 3, 
is another of the striking buildings in that city. Chicago may 



F IG . 2.—The Owing’s Building, Chicago. 


not count more tall buildings than in other cities, but she has, 
no doubt, a greater number at present of “sky-scrapers as 
they are called in the West, within a given area. 

The Masonic Temple is regarded as one of the greatest 
achievements of high building construction and engineering 











6 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 



Fig 3.—German OrERA House, Chicago, III. Adler & Sulliven, 

Architects. 














GENERAL AND DESCRIPTIVE. 


7 


(see perspective, Fig. 4).* It is situated at the corner of State 
and Randolph Streets, and designed by Messrs. Burnham and 
Root, architects of Chicago. The building extends 170 feet 
on State Street to a 40 feet alley, and 113 feet on Randolph 
Street to a 25 feet alley. The height from the sidewalk to 
the top of coping is 274 feet. The building is 20 stories, and 
contains 5,436,000 cubic feet exclusive of the court. 

The street fronts are of dressed granite up to the sills of 
the fourth-story windows; above that of terra cotta and brick, 
of a gray and mottled color to match the granite. There are 
fourteen passenger elevators arranged in a circular curve at the 
rear of the; main entrance. There are also freight elevators. 
All balconies have floors and soffits of marble and mosaic. 
Hall columns in the court are covered with alabaster. All 
interior metal is of bronze finish, highly ornamented. The 
inside court is lined of marble throughout. On the roof is a 
promenade deck, 100 X 120 feet, covered with a skylight and 
enclosed with glass. To the top of this skylight from the 
sidewalk is 302' 1 ". All piers have steel columns inside which 
carry all the floor loads. With the exception of six piers the 
whole building above the fourth floor is carried on the col¬ 
umns. Two systems of vertical bracing run through the nar¬ 
row way of the building from top to bottom, one each side of 
the elevators. These rods run through two floors and cross 
one column. Each of the above columns or pair of columns, 
as mentioned, are provided with independent footings, which 
reduces and distributes the pressure uniformly on the soft and 
treacherous soil. The architects of Chicago probably have to 
deal with the most unfavorable conditions for securing a good 
foundation for these heavy buildings. 

The soil under the business district consists of a black 
loamy clay, which is somewhat firm at the surface, but a few 
feet below the surface the soil becomes quite soft, growing 


* For a fuller description, see the Engineering Record, Jan. 21, 1893. 




8 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


more so the deeper the excavation is carried. The first of 
the large structures were built with continuous foundation 
walls with wide footings. This method did not prove suc- 



Fig. 4. —Masonic Temple, Chicago, III. Burnham & Root, Architects. 

(From Architecture and Building.) 

cessful. After many experiments, the foundations were divided 
into isolated piers, the footing being carefully proportioned, 
according to the load upon it, so that all should settle at exactly 
the same rate, without any detriment to the superstructure. 












GENERAL AND DESCRIPTIVE. 


9 


The footings of the piers in the Masonic Building, as in the 
majority of Chicago buildings, are built of steel rails and con¬ 
crete, and crossed three or four times, thus insuring a great 
spreading in a small height. 

Under a single column of the Masonic Building the con¬ 
crete is 15' 2 " X 15' 2 ". On top of this 18 steel rails were laid ; 
then 18 at right angles to these; then 10 parallel to the lower 
18 and 10 parallel to the upper 18, making a total of 56 pieces. 

The old Board of Trade Building, at the corner of La Salle 
and Dearborn Streets, lately remodelled, presents a front re¬ 
markable even in the city of tall buildings. From a seven- 
story structure of rather inferior design it has been remodelled 
into a fourteen-story palace. 

Down on Dearborn Street the Manhattan Block is an im¬ 
mense structure, eighteen stories high. The Tacoma Building 
at Madison and La Salle, was considered a high building a 
few years ago; it is now overshadowed by a number of much 
taller buildings. 

Representative New York High Buildings.—Consider¬ 
ing the present rapid development of the skeleton construc¬ 
tion and this necessity for high buildings, New York City 
takes its place at the head, not only in the designs, but in the 
details of the construction. And where other cities have con¬ 
fined their high structures within narrow limits, it is not so in 
New York ; they are scattered along the principal thorough¬ 
fares from the Battery to Central Park, where high buildings 
are quite common. 

Among the many notable and handsome structures adjoin¬ 
ing the Park are the New Netherlands, a hotel built in 1892, 
by W. W. Astor. It occupies a site 100 feet by 125, on the 
corner of Fifth Avenue and Fifty-ninth Street, and has a 
cellar and basement below the street level, and seventeen 
stories above, the four upper stories being in the picturesque 
high roof. Nine hundred steel columns and about 4500 steel 
beams were used in the construction of this building, the 


IO 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


details of which, and other parts of the building construction 
are further explained and illustrated in Chapter VIII of this 



volume. The Savoy is another of the tall buildings in the 
same locality, situated at the southeast corner of Fifth Avenue 























GENERAL AND DESCRIPTIVE . II 

and Fifty-ninth Street, used as a hotel. It measures 75 X 150 
feet, and has an extension of 100 feet more at the rear. It is 
an eleven-story steel frame structure, faced with Indiana lime¬ 
stone, in the Italian Renaissance style of architecture. It was 
opened in 1892. 

The Plaza Hotel, directly opposite the Savoy, faces the 
Plaza at the Fifth Avenue and Fifty-ninth Street entrance to 
Central Park, overlooking the main Park entrance. 

The Hotel Majestic is another of these high and elegant 
hotels built in this locality. 

There are also a number of lofty and extensive apartment 
houses in the vicinity of Central Park. One of the largest is 
the Dakota, at Central Park West and Seventy-second Street. 
It is a many-gabled building, in the style of a French chateau. 

Then in Fifty-ninth Street near Seventh Avenue, south 
side of the Park, are the Central Park or Navarro Flats, which 
include several independent houses constructed as a single 
building. The different houses in the group are known as the 
Madrid, Granada, Lisbon, Cordova, Barcelona, Valencia, Sala¬ 
manca, and Tolosa, all combined, with numerous balconies 
and facades, in the Spanish style. 

The Osborne, Seventh Avenue and Fifty-eighth Street, is 
another tall structure of the above class. 

At the extreme southern part of the city the greatest 
number of high buildings are used as offices. One of the 
finest and largest is the Washington Building, at the foot of 
Broadway, overlooking Battery Park and the Harbor. The 
Washington Building was completed in 1884. It covers 17,000 
square feet of land, and is thirteen stories in height, the two 
upper stories being in the mansard roof. 

Between the central and lower portions of the city a few 
of the highest buildings erected and about to be erected are 
shown by a few plates, such as the World Building. Fig. 6, 
erected in 1889-90, is the tallest office building known, reach¬ 
ing 309 feet from sidewalk to lantern; or 375^ feet from the 


12 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 



Fig. 6.—The World Building, Park Row, Facing City Hall Park, N. Y 
George B. Post, Architect. 










GENERAL AND DESCRIPTIVE . 


13 


bottom of foundation to the top of the flagstaff. It has a 
huge skeleton of iron and steel sustaining its twenty-six 
stories. 

The Manhattan Life Insurance Company is preparing to 
erect a building at Nos. 64 and 68, Broadway, which will sur¬ 
pass the World Building in height—a view of which is shown 
in Fig. 7. The building is sixteen stories above the sidewalk. 
Then comes the seventeenth story, 14 feet; the eighteenth, 26 
feet; the nineteenth, 23 feet; the twentieth, at the floor of the 
lantern, 27 feet, making a total of 326 feet from the sidewalk. 
In style it will be a valuable contribution to the architecture 
of lower Broadway, and will make an imposing appearance 
among its stately neighbors; the Standard Oil Company, the 
Columbia Building, Aldrich Court, the Consolidated Stock 
and Petroleum Exchange, the Union Trust Company, and 
even the tall spire of the Trinity Church will be thrown in the 
shade. 

The proposed office building of the New York Sun, sit¬ 
uated on Park Row opposite City Hall Park, as designed by 
Bruce Price, architect, and shown by the sketch Fig. 5, con¬ 
templates a building thirty-two stories in height, and if carried 
out as the architect intends will, no doubt, take its place as 
one of the handsomest office structures in existence. 

All the above buildings are not, strictly speaking, of the 
skeleton type; but a number of the principal ones using this 
style of construction are further described and detailed in the 
following pages, such as the Havemeyer Building, Postal Tele¬ 
graph, the Home Life Insurance Company, the Waldorf, the 
Western Union Annex, etc. 

New York Building Law in Relation to Skeleton Con¬ 
struction. —For the skeleton construction, the existing law, 
passed April, 1892, makes some provision : “ Curtain walls of 
brick built in between iron or steel columns, and supported 
wholly or in part on iron or steel girders, shall not be less 
than twelve inches thick for fifty feet of the uppermost height 


H 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 



Fig. 7.—Manhattan Life Ins. Co. Building, 64 & 68 Broadway, N. Y, 
Kimball & Thompson, Architects. 























GENERAL AND DESCRIPTIVE. 


15 


thereof, or to the nearest tiers of beams to that measurement 
in any building so constructed ; and every lower section of 
fifty feet or to the nearest tier of beams to such vertical meas¬ 
urement, or part thereof, shall have a thickness of four inches 
more than is required for the section next above it down to 
the tier of beams nearest to the curb-level; and thence 
downwardly the thickness of walls shall increase in the ratio 
prescribed in section 474 of this title for the thickness of 
foundation-walls. 

Curtain-walls may be four inches less in thickness than is 
specified respectively for walls of dwellings and buildings, but 
no curtain-wall shall be less than twelve inches thick. 

Section 474. —Foundation walls shall be construed to in¬ 
clude all walls and piers built below the curb-level or nearest 
tier of beams to the curb, to serve as supports for walls, piers, 
columns, girders, posts, or beams. Foundation-walls shall be 
of stone or brick. If built of stone they shall be at least eight 
inches thicker than the wall next above them to a depth of 
twelve feet below the curb-level; and for every additional ter, 
feet or part thereof deeper, they shall be increased four inches 
in thickness. If built of brick they shall be at least four inches 
thicker than the wall next above them to a depth of twelve 
feet below the curb-level, and for every additional ten feet, or 
part thereof deeper, they shall be increased four inches in 
thickness. 

The footing or base course shall be of stone or concrete or 
both, or of concrete and stepped up brick-work, of sufficient 
thickness and area to safely bear the weight to be imposed 
thereon ; if the footing or base course be of concrete, the con¬ 
crete shall not be less than twelve inches thick; if of stone, 
the stones shall not be less than two by three feet, and at least 
eight inches in thickness for walls and at least twelve inches 
wider than the bottom width of said walls, and not less than 
ten inches in thickness if under piers, columns, or posts, and at 


16 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 

least twelve inches wider on all sides than the bottom width of 
said piers, columns, or posts. 

Section 485. —Where columns are used to support iron or 
steel girders carrying curtain-walls , the said columns shall be 
of cast-iron, wrought-iron , or rolled steel , and on their exposed 
outer and inner surfaces be constructed to resist fire by having 
a casing of brick-work not less than four inches in thickness 
and bonded into the brick-work of the curtain-walls, or the 
inside surfaces of the said columns may be covered with an 
outer shell of iron having an air space between ; and the ex¬ 
posed sides of the iron or steel girders shall also be similarly 
covered in and tied and bonded. 

When the thickness of the curtain-walls is twelve inches, 
the girders for the support of same shall be placed at the floor 
line of each story, commencing at the line where the thickness 
of twelve inches starts from, and when the thickness of such 
walls is sixteen inches the girders shall be placed not farther 
apart than every other story, at the floor line commencing at 
the line where the thickness of sixteen inches starts from, 
provided that at the intermediate floor line a suitable tie of 
iron or steel shall rigidly connect the columns together hori¬ 
zontally, and that the ends of the floor-beams do not rest upon 
the said sixteen-inch walls. 

When the curtain-walls are twenty inches or more in thick¬ 
ness and rest directly on the foundation-walls, the ends of the 
floor-beams may be placed directly thereon, but at or near the 
floor line of each story ties of iron or steel encased in the 
brick-work shall rigidly connect the columns together hori¬ 
zontally. 


CHAPTER II. 


COLUMNS. 

Columns. —The first examples of the skeleton construc¬ 
tion in buildings were those erected with cast-iron columns. 
Cast-iron at the time of their erection, and no doubt is at 
the present time, produced more quickly and cheaper than 
wrought-iron or steel columns, and these were two very im¬ 
portant factors in the problem. 

The constructors and producers of cast-iron advocate its 
use only as the material for the columns inclosed in the walls. 
They claim also that the oxide of iron paint so commonly 
used for coating iron soon dries out, leaving a coating of dry, 
broken scale or powder. Between the columns and the outer 
air are only a few inches of brick or some fire-proof material, 
through which dampness soon finds its way. In wrought-iron, 
they claim that rust honeycombs and eats entirely through 
the metal 

Mild steel rusts faster than wrought-iron at first, then 
slower. Cast-iron, on the contrary, slowly oxidizes in damp 
situations; rust does not scale from it, and the oxidation 
when formed is of much less dangerous kind, extending only a 
little way into the metal to about the thickness of a knife- 
blade, and then stops for good. Cast-iron of goodly thickness 
offers a far better resistance to fire, or fire and water combined, 
than wrought-iron or steel. 

The experiments undertaken by Prof. Bauschinger, of 


18 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS . 

Munich, in reference to the safety of cast-iron columns when 
exposed to the action of great heat are quoted. “ Having 
arranged some cast and wrought iron columns heavily loaded, 
exactly as they would be if supporting a building, had them 
gradually heated ; first, to three hundred degrees, next to six 
hundred, and finally to red heat, then suddenly cooling them 
by a jet of water, just as might happen when water is applied 
to extinguish a fire. 

“ The experiment showed that the cast-iron columns, al¬ 
though they were bent by the extreme heat and exhibited 
transverse cracks when cold water was applied, yet they sup¬ 
ported the weight resting on them ; while the wrought-iron 
columns were bent before arriving at the red heat, and were 
afterwards so much distorted by the water that the restraight¬ 
ening them was out of the question ; in fact, if supporting a 
real building, they would no doubt have utterly collapsed 
under the weight they had to sustain.” 

If the brick-work or fire-proofing which surrounds the wall 
or interior columns can be depended upon as a protection for 
the metal against the effects of fire and water, the above ex¬ 
periment would lose its weight against the use of wrought- 
iron or steel. 

The objection to wrought-iron or steel on account of rust¬ 
ing may seem more real, and yet we have seen pieces' of 
wrought-iron beams, anchors, etc., taken from very old walls 
unharmed by rust. 

There is, however, considerable distrust of cast-iron in high 
and narroiv building , especially in relation to the connections 
with the floor and wall girders. Brackets and lugs are apt to 
break suddenly and completely, but with wrought-iron and 
steel will bend a great deal without breaking, and that rivets 
are stronger than bolts. To this objection it can be said that 
the brackets and lugs, instead of being cast with the columns, 
can be put on with angle-knee connections, drilled holes in the 
columns and with any number of bolts, which in a great many 


COLUMNS . 19 

of our high buildings has proven entirely satisfactory, where 
lateral bracing is not required. 

The advocates of wrought-iron and steel columns claim 
that cast-iron is rigid and unyielding, and that its coefficient 
of elasticity is much lower than that of wrought-iron or steel, 
and the cast-iron column is not as stiff as the others, and will 
not on the whole produce as rigid and unyielding a structure. 

Where high and narrow buildings are concerned, much at¬ 
tention is given to the bracing against wind forces—that is, in 
the stiffness of the joints and the stability of the structure 
upon the foundation, and when the bracing is a portion of the 
frame construction, the difficulty of doing it properly with 
cast-iron columns is very great, but with wrought-iron or steel 
these difficulties are largely removed. 

It is not the intention of the author to enter into any dis¬ 
cussion on the question of which should be adopted, but to 
confine the subject to what has already been done, and illus¬ 
trate the practices of the present time, especially the build¬ 
ings he has closely followed in having charge of the con¬ 
structive details at the Architectural Iron Works. We have 
very many handsome buildings constructed where cast-iron, 
wrought-iron, and steel columns have been exclusively 
adopted, each system will no doubt be copied for years to 
come unless some radical change will turn the tide into an¬ 
other channel. 

But we are entering on an age of steel. Rolling mills pro¬ 
duce it quicker and cheaper than any other metal, and the 
change from cast-iron to steel for columns, beams, and girders, 
especially in our large buildings, has been generally adopted 
by the prominent architects throughout the country. One 
after another the advocates of cast-iron have fallen into line in 
favor of wrought-iron and steel in high and narrow buildings, 
but for buildings with a large base cast-iron will continue to be 
popular. 

Cast-iron columns have been used, and are still extensively 


20 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


adopted, in some of our noted buildings. In New York we 
have in course of construction, together with those already 


built: 

Postal Telegraph Building 
Decker Bros. Building 
The Waldorf 
Jackson Building 
Scott & Bowne Building 


D., L. &. W. R. R. Building 
The Western Union Annex 
Lincoln Building 
McIntyre Building 
Mutual Life Annex (wall col’s). 


In Chicago cast-iron columns have been used in such build¬ 
ings as 

The Rookery 
Home Insurance Building 
The Monon Block 
Western Bank Note Bldg. 

Tacoma Building 
Cold Storage Building 

Wrought-iron and steel columns have been used in New 
York in the following buildings: 


The Auditorium 
The Chamber of Commerce 
Manhattan Building 
Unity Building 
Owens Building. 


The New Netherlands 
Havemeyer Building 
Lancashire Building 

World Building 
etc. 


Home Life Ins. Co. Building 
Hotel Majestic 
Mail and Express 

Mutual Reserve Fund Building 
etc. 


In Chicago a few of the noted wrought-iron and steel struc¬ 
tures are: 


Rand McNally Building 
The Ashland Block 
Venetian Building 
The Kear^arge 
The Fair 


Masonic Temple 
German Theatre 
The Pontiac 
Northern Hotel 
Woman’s Temple, etc 


Many noted buildings in all the other large cities have 
used each system. 

The heights of buildings using in cast-iron compare favor- 


COLUMNS. 


2 


ably witli those using wrought-iron and steel—a few of which 
are compared below: 

Cast-iron Structures. Steel Structures. 


Feet. Stories. Feet. Stories. 


Chicago, Rookery. 164 

12 

Chicago, Northern Hotel, 168 

14 

N. Y., Postal Telegraph . 

M 

“ Masonic Temple, 254 

20 

Chicago, Unity Building... 210 

17 

N. Y., New Netherlands, 217 

17 

“ Tacoma Building, 165 

13 

“ Home Life. 


“ Manhattan. 210 

16 

“ Havemeyer.175 

J5 


Cast-iron Columns are usually made hollow round, Fig. 
13, or when built in walls, as in the skeleton frame, hollow 
square, Fig. 10. Some of the variations brought about by the 
skeleton frame are shown, as Fig. 8, or what is called the \-\- 
shape, with an open web, and Fig. 9, similar to Fig. 8, but with 
a solid web. 

Then again we have the modification of the square column, 
as in Fig. 11. The side or back adjoining the party wall is 


t V/M/MP/Tb 




Fig. 8. 



Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. ii. Fig. 12. Fig. 13. 


moved nearer the axis of the column, so that a greater dis¬ 
tance could be had for fire-proofing the body of the columns. 
This section was used in the McIntyre Building, Broadway and 
Eighteenth Street, New York, and changed from the shape 
Fig. 10 to this by the architect, and approved by the Building 
Department. 

The square column encased with a shell, as Fig. 12, was 
used in one of the first buildings adopting the skeleton frame. 

In making a selection from the different shapes for the 
skeleton structure, it is very important to adopt the form that 
presents the smoothest or unbroken surface for connections 
with the floor and curtain-wall girders. 

It is also important that the masonry should be built 




































22 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


solidly around the columns. The H-sections, Figs. 8 and 9, are 
no doubt better adapted for this purpose than the rectangular 
shapes, Figs. 10, 11, and 12. 

The hollow circular column, Fig. 13, is the least desirable 
for building in with the walls, more difficult to fire-proof, but 
in connecting with the girders that portion of the column 
can be cast square. 

Wrought-iron and Steel Columns as used for the skele¬ 
ton frame are various, and when a compound column section is 
required ; very many rolled shapes can be riveted together to 
make up the required section. Those made up of Z-bars and 
a single web plate, as Fig. 14, are about the simplest form of 
riveted columns. 


Fig. 14. 




Fig. 18. 


Fig. 15. 




Fig. 19. 



Fig. 20. 


Fig. it. 





The section is increased by the use of cover plates riveted 
to the outer leg of the Z’s and shown at Fig. 15. Then again, 
we have the rectangular section of Z’s, Fig. 16. The section 
shown by Fig. 17 is a Z-bar column used in the Venetian 
Building, Chicago, a twelve-story structure; the additional 
required area being made up of plates and angles. The col¬ 
umn is 13J" X 21" X 27 '.i|" long. 

It is a well-known fact that metal near the neutral axis of 
a column is good for little, and that the capacity of equal 
areas varies as the metal is removed from the neutral axis. 

It seems, therefore, that a better proportioned column 








































COLUMNS. 


23 


could be adopted for the requirement of the case. In Fig. 18 
the column section is made up of four angles and a single web, 
and in Fig. 19 a single plate is added or a number of plates to 
make up the required section. 

Then the rectangular shape, Fig. 20, made up of angles 
and plates, requiring eight lines of rivets. 

The author has not been able to find a section like that of 
Fig. 21, used in any skeleton frame. It is made up of the 
cheapest rolled sections—that is, angles and plates,—and has 
many advantages for fire-proofing and building in with the ma¬ 
sonry. Then again, the greatest amount of metal is farthest 
from the neutral axis. This column section has been exten¬ 
sively used by the P. R. R. Co. in all their outside work. For 
strength and accessibility for painting, it seems to have no 
superior. 


Fig. 22. Fig. 23. 




Ftg. 26. Fig. 27. 


Fig. 24. 



Fig. 28. 


Fig. 25. 




Fig. 29. 


There is another shape which is more or less used, such 
as that shown at Fig. 22, the Phoenix column, and other new 
commercial shapes, such as could be conveniently rolled, as 
Figs. 23, 24, 25, and 26. 

Fig. 27 may be either of plates and channels or latticed 
channels, as in Fig. 28. 

In Fig. 29 angles are used at each corner; two sides may 
be latticed and the other sides solid plates, or all sides may be 
latticed. 


















24 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 

Any of these sections, if used in the ordinary buildings, will 
carry the load usually placed upon them, with the unit strain 
required by the building laws, providing the columns are well 
made, with the loads symmetrically applied, as is usual in the 
side walls of the skeleton frame, where three of the four sides 
of the columns connect with the structure. Almost all of the 
above sections will be fully explained in detail in the examples 
of actually constructed buildings in the following pages, and 
the preference can be given to that shape which will best serve 
the purpose of the building to be erected. 

The Advantages and Disadvantages of Different 
Shapes of Compound Sections. —There are many points of 
advantage and disadvantage to each shape which must be 
carefully considered before deciding the proper column to 
use —i e : 

i. Cost. —The cost of the column when in its finished 
state, which means the shapes used in the section and the num¬ 
ber of holes to be punched and riveted. In the Z-bar column, 
Fig. 14, there are five different members, but only two lines of 
rivet-holes. Fig. 18 of plates and angles has the same number 
of members and rivet-holes. Z-bars and angles are probably 
as easy sections to roll as any commercial shapes. These col¬ 
umns have the advantage in only requiring two lines of rivet- 
holes to be punched and riveted. But if a heavier section is 
required, plates are placed on the outside, then six lines of 
holes and rivets are required. Then they become more ex¬ 
pensive, and in Fig. 15 all the material inside the square is 
theoretically lost. 

The column section, Fig. 19, is used in some of our noted 
buildings, and when not exceeding six lines of rivets is as sat¬ 
isfactory as Z-bar columns. 

In Fig. 21 the same simple shapes are used as in Fig. 20, 
and is to be preferred in cost to Fig. 17. 

Figs. 17 and 20 have eight lines of rivets. Fig. 21 has ten 
lines. The Phoenix column, Fig. 22, is a patented shape, and 


COL UMNS. 


25 


only rolled by one rolling mill, but it has its advantages in 
having only four lines of rivets in its smallest section ; but the 
area can be increased by simply placing fillers between the 
segments, and it still only requires four lines. They are also 
made in eight sections. 

The same remarks might apply to the sections in Figs. 23, 
24, 25, and 26, although the author is not aware that Figs. 23 
and 24 are in the market. 

Figs. 27, 28, and 29 are made up of ordinary commercial 
shapes that can be bought at any rolling mill. These sections 
require four and eight lines of rivets. 

2. Availability of Material. —It is best to make up the 
column sections of shapes manufactured by all the rolling 
mills, and not those patented and only available from special 
places. 

Z-bars are at the present manufactured generally through¬ 
out the country, and all rolling mills make angles, plates, 
channels, and beams. 

Fig. 22 is only manufactured by the Phoenix Iron Works, 
of Phoenixville, Pa.; Fig. 26 by Carnegie, Phipps & Co., of Pitts¬ 
burg, Pa. 

3. The Advantages of Different Shape Columns for 
Connections. —It is an important question, and no doubt a 
serious one, to select the best column which will make the 
strongest and stiffest connections with the wall and floor 
girders. When there is only one beam or girder at the same 
level and on opposite sides, a satisfactory detail can be made 
for almost any of the above sections; but when arrangements 
of the beams and girders are irregular, both as to position and 
to height, those columns which present the plainest and least 
irregular surfaces are the ones which should be selected. By 
glancing at the details of column connections and the various 
examples, the force of the above remarks will become evi¬ 
dent. 


2 6 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


Z-bar and plate columns, as Figs. 14 to 21, are the best— 
depending, of course, upon the size of columns and size of 
girders forming the connection. 

The Phoenix columns presented very many difficulties in 
their early use; but those points seem to have been remedied, 
so that the form of connections are very much improved. 

By means of cross-pintle connections, as explained further 
under column connections, it is possible to make a continuous 
column from the basement to the roof, in which the joints are 
stronger laterally than the body of the column, and the con¬ 
nections are practically 25$ less in weight than the usual form 
of plate and brackets. 

The New York Building Law Relating to the Strength 
of Columns. —“ The strength of all columns and posts shall 
be computed according to Gordon’s formula,* and the crush¬ 
ing-weights in pounds per square inch of section, for the fol¬ 
lowing-named materials shall be taken as coefficients in said 
formula, viz .—Cast iron , 80,000 ; wrought or rolled iron , 40,000; 
rolled steel , 40,000. The factors of safety shall be as 1 to 4 for 
all posts, columns, and other vertical supports when of wrought 
iron or rolled steel. 


* Gordon’s formula for the ultimate strength of columns: 

p $ 

Fixed ends. —=-72. 

A — area, d = least side in inches, l = length in feet, P = load, S = total com¬ 
pression; unit stress, 80,000 lbs. for cast-iron, 40,000 for rolled-iron or steel. 

K — for cast-iron; K — wrought-iron or steel. 

The quantity K cannot be determined theoretically; its value varies with the 
form of cross-section as well as with the kind of material and the arrangement 
of the ends of the columns. 

The values of S are in pounds per square inch, while those of K are in ab¬ 
stract numbers. 





COL UMNS. 


2 7 


All cast-iron, wrought iron, or rolled steel columns shall be 
made true and smooth at both ends, and shall rest on iron or 
steel bed-plates, and have iron or steel cap-plates, which shall 
also be made true. 

In all buildings hereafter erected or altered, where any iron 
or steel column or columns are used to support a wall or part 
thereof, excepting a wall fronting on a street, and columns lo¬ 
cated below the level of the sidewalk which are used to support 
exterior walls or arches over vaults, the said column or columns 
shall be constructed double—that is, an outer and inner column. 
The inner column alone to be of sufficient strength to sustain 
safely the weight to be imposed thereon, or such other iron or 
steel columns of sufficient strength and so constructed as to 
secure resistance to fire, may be used as may be approved by 
the superintendent of buildings. 

Cast-iron posts or columns which are to be used for the sup¬ 
port of wooden or iron girders or brick walls, not cast with 
one open side or back, before being set in place, shall have a 
f-inch hole drilled in the shaft of each post or column by the 
manufacturer or contractor furnishing the same, to exhibit the 
thickness of the castings ; and any other similar-sized hole or 
holes the superintendent of buildings or his duly authorized 
representatives may require shall be drilled in the said posts or 
columns by the said manufacturer or contractor at his own ex¬ 
pense. 

Iron posts or columns cast with one or more open sides and 
backs shall have solid iron plates on top of each, to prevent the 
passage of smoke or fire through them from one story to an¬ 
other, excepting where pierced for the passage of pipes. 

No cast-iron post or column shall be used in any building of 
a less average thickness of shaft than f of an inch ; nor shall it 
have an unsupported length of more than 20 times its least 
lateral dimensions or diameter. 

No wrought-iron or rolled-steel column shall have an unsup- 


28 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


ported length of more than 30 times its least lateral dimensions 
or diameter ; nor shall its metal be less than J of an inch in 
thickness. 

All cast-iron, wrought-iron, and steel columns shall have their 
bearings faced smooth and at right angles to the axis of the 
column, and when one column rests upon another column they 
shall be securely bolted together. 

Strength of Cast-iron Columns. —We owe our knowledge 
of the strength of cast-iron columns chiefly to the experiments 
of Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson, in the year 1840. These were very 
numerous and to a certain degree comprehensive, embracing 
over two hundred examples. 

As deduced from these experiments it was found that where 
cylindrical cast-iron columns were shorter than thirty external 
diameters, the weight required to break them by bending is so 
great that the crushing force becomes sensible, and the column 
yields to the combined effect of the forces. But in a long col¬ 
umn (where the length exceeds thirty external diameters), 
although the pressure contributes to break it by crushing as 
well as by flexure or bending, yet the column yields from 
bending with a weight which is insufficient to sensibly affect it 
by crushing alone. It was found that when the pressure on 
the column exceeded one fourth of the breaking weight, a 
change or derangement of the metal took place. Therefore 
one fifth the crushing weight is as great a pressure as can be put 
upon cast-iron columns without having their ultimate strength 
decreased by incipient crushing; provided the thickness of 
metal in column is uniform, with turned ends, secured top and 
bottom and bolted through flanges. 

If the column is secured by an uncertain method, it is safer 
to use one sixth the crushing weight. 

It is obvious, therefore, that it will not do to take the table 
on page 30 as a guide, unless the columns are of uniform thick¬ 
ness throughout, of good metal, with cores made in one piece, 


COLUMNS . 


2 9 


castings reasonably perfect and straight, the ends turned off 
true in a lath in planes at right angles with their axis, and set 
up perpendicularly in the building. 

Mr. Hodgkinson, in his experiments, found that columns 
with rounded ends can sustain only about one third the weight 
of those with flat ends carefully fitted, with the ends at right 
angles to the axis of the column. In the ordinary mode of 
chipping off (cutting with a chisel) the ends of a column in an 
unfinished state, the inequalities of the bearing surfaces cause 
the weight to rest on a few points on the ends, and it is almost 
impossible that the ends shall be at right angles with the axis. 
The safe weight a column can sustain in such cases is consid¬ 
ered to be about two thirds of one turned true. 

A few experiments were also made on columns with rounded 
ends, and other forms than cylindrical. Square columns had 
an average breaking weight about 58 per cent greater than 
cylindrical columns of diameters equal to the sides of the 
squares. A pillar of the section “{“,90.75 inches long, 3 inches 
across, and the ribs 0.48 inch thick, had a breaking weight 63 
per cent greater than the computed breaking weight of a solid 
cylindrical column of the same weight and length. A hollow 
cylindrical column of the same weight and length, and of an 
external diameter equal to the width of the —j-, has a computed 
breaking weight about double that found by experiment for 
the form—{-. 

A pillar of the section H, 3 inches in height and 2.5 inches 
in width, of the same length and nearly the same sectional 
area as the preceding, had a breaking weight about 2.6 times 
the computed breaking weight of a solid cylindrical pillar of 
the same weight and length. 

A hollow pillar, 3 inches in external diameter and of the 
same weight and length, has a computed breaking weight 
about 19 per cent greater than was found by experiment for 
the H-section. The H-section being built solidly in the brick 


30 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


work, the result would no doubt be quite different from Mr. 
Hodgkinson’s tests. The results would be nearly those of the 
square and circular columns. 

Table Giving the Strength of Hollow Cast Columns.— 

In computing the weight to be sustained by a column, it is 
not sufficient to consider only the weight appropriate to that 
particular use for which it is intended ; but the weight should 
be estimated for any use to which the building may be applied, 
with full allowance for floors and the weights to be placed 
thereon. It is not safe to take the average weight sustained 
on each column, as some columns will have more or less on 
them than the average, and will be loaded more on one side 
than the other; besides, they are subject to concussions from 
bodies falling on a floor above, or may receive a lateral blow 
from goods falling against them in transmission. 

Great allowance should also be made for columns that are 
subject to vibrations caused by machinery, etc. 

The following table gives the ultimate strength of round 
and square cast-iron columns, in pounds per square inch of 

/ 

sectional area. The numbers in column ^ = the length di¬ 
vided by the least diameter each taken in inches. 


1 

d 

Round. 

Square. 

l 

d 

Round. 

Square. 

5 

75.300 

76,200 

17 

46,444 

50,700 

6 

73,400 

74.630 

18 

44,200 

48,540 

7 

71,270 

72,860 

19 

42,100 

46,460 

8 

6S,97o 

70,920 

20 

40,000 

44,450 

9 

66,530 

68,850 

21 

38,100 

42,510 

IO 

64,000 

66,670 

22 

36,200 

40,650 

ii 

61,420 

64,410 

23 

34,460 

38,870 

12 

58,820 

62,110 

24 

32,790 

37,175 

13 

56,240 

59,890 

25 

31,220 

35.560 

14 

53,86o 

57,470 

26 

29.740 

34,010 

15 

51,200 

55,170 

27 

28,340 

32,550 

16 

48,780 

52.910 

28 

27,030 

31,150 
















COLUMNS. 


3 1 


Factors of Safety for Cast-iron Columns. 

(a) If column is accurately turned to a true plane and its 
bearing surfaces are perfectly true, take one fifth of ultimate 
strength. 

(b) If column has turned ends and is set with the usual care, 
as in ordinary buildings, take one sixth of ultimate strength. 

( c ) If the ordinary mode of chipping off ends as with a 
chisel is employed, take one eighth of ultimate strength. 

Example i. What safe load will a 12-inch-diameter column 
1 inch thick, 15 feet long, support with a safety factor of 5, or 
one fifth the ultimate strength ? 


/ 180 



Opposite this number for round columns is 51,200 pounds, and 
dividing this by 5 we get 10,240 pounds, safe load per square 
inch of sectional area. 


A 12" dia. area = 113.10 sq. in. 

“ in" “ “ — ca “ “ 


34.56 = area of a 12" dia. column 1" thick. 

Then 34.56 inches X 10.240 = 353,894 pounds or 177 tons, 
total safe load the column will support. 

Example 2. What safe load will a 10-inch square column 
I inch thick, 10 feet long, support with a safety factor of 6, or 
one sixth the ultimate strength ? 

/ _ 120 _ 
r 10 — 

Opposite this number for square columns is 62,110, which 



3 2 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


divided by 6 gives 10,352 pounds, safe load per square inch of 
sectional area. 

Area of column = 36 inches X 10,352 = 372,672 pounds or 
186 tons, the total safe load the column will support. 

Strength of Wrought-iron and Steel Columns.— 
Wrought-iron and steel columns fail either by deflecting 
bodily out of a straight line, or by the buckling of the metal 
between rivets or other points of supporf. 

Both actions may take place at the same time, but if the 
latter occurs alone it may be an indication that the rivet 
spacing or the thickness of the metal is insufficient. 

Until a few years ago we have had no experimental 
knowledge on this subject beyond the experiments of Hodg- 
kinson, which have furnished the constants for Hodgkinson’s 
and also for Gordon’s formula. 

Then we had Euler’s formula, where it is assumed that for 
any given material there is a certain definite ratio of length to 
diameter below which a column will give away by direct 
crushing, while one whose ratio of length to diameter is 
greater will give way zvholly by transverse strain. 

Hodgkinson’s empirical formulae were based upon his ex¬ 
periments upon small columns of a variety of ratios of length 
to diameter. 

Then Gordon’s formula, where it is assumed that all 
columns give way by a combination of crushing and bending. 

The formula which seems to most satisfactorily represent 
the result of experiments is that of Gordon, or, as it is some¬ 
times referred to, “ Gordon’s formula modified by Rankine 
but the best usage gives to it the name of Rankine’s formula. 
The disagreement of the formulae already referred to has led to 
the proposal of a number of similar formulae, each having its 
constants determined to suit certain definite set of tests, and 
all these thus proposed must be classed as empirical formulae, 
and applied within the cases experimented upon. 


COLUMNS. 


33 


In 1881, Mr. Clark, of the firm of Clark, Reeves & Co., 
presented to the American Society of Civil Engineers a report 
of a number of tests on full-sized Phoenix columns, made for 
them at the Watertown Arsenal, together with a comparison 
of the actual breaking weights with those which would have 
been obtained by using the common form of Gordon’s formula 
for ivrought iron: 


P 

A 


36000 


36000/' 2 


where P — breaking weight in pounds, A = area of section in 
square inches, / = length in inches, r = least radius of gyra¬ 
tion in inches. The table is as follows: 


i\o. 01 1 

Experiment. 

Length of 
Column. Ft. 

Ratio of Diam¬ 
eter to Length. 

Weight. Lbs. 

Sectional Area. 
Sq. In. 

Total Com¬ 
pression 
under Loads. 

Elastic Limit. 

1 

Ultimate 

Strength. 

Total 
Ultimate 
Strength, 
in lbs., by 
Gordon’s 
Formula. 

Lbs 

200,000. 

Lbs. 

300,000. 

Total 

lbs. 

Lbs. 
per 
sq. in. 

Total 

lbs. 

Lbs. 
per 
sq in. 

I 

28 

42 

1,142 

12.062 

O. I9O 




424,000 

35,150 

330,146 

2 

28 

42 

1,153 

I 2 .l 8 l 

0.186 




416,000 

34,150 

333,459 

3 

25 

37 ^ 

1,034 

12.233 


O.255 

342,000 

27,960 

43 I > 5 0 ° 

35,270 

352,013 

4 

25 

37 k 

1,023 

I2.IOO 

O. l68 

0.264 



424,000 

35,040 

348,119 

5 

22 

33 

920 

12.371 

0.160 

O.243 



440,000 

35,570 

372,837 

6 

22 

'l'l 


12.31I 

n. T C2 0 .2^6 



423,000 

34,360 

371,043 

7 

19 ) 

0 Cl 

f 773 

12.023 


0.198 

. 


425,200 

35,365 

377,955 

8 

19 f 


( 111 

12.087 

0.139 

O.213 

354 ,ooo 

29,290 

446,000 

36,900 

380,197 

9 

16 1 


\ 650 

12.0000. 120 




439,000 

36,580 

39 x ,7or 

to 

16 \ 

24 1 

( 650 

I 2 . OOOj 

0.116 




439,000 

36,580 

391,701 

[i 

13 1 

IQ 1 

j 536 

12.185 

0.092 

O.I42 

342,000 

28,890 

449,000 

36,857 

410,660 

[2 

13 f 

* 9 ? 

1 53 i 

12.009 

0.091 




44 q,ooo 

37,200 

406,886 

f 3 

10 l 


j 415 

12.248 


0. no 

330,000 

26,940 

446,800 

36,480 

423,8S6 

14 

10 j 

15 

\ 418 

12-339 


0.109 

350,000 

28,360 

449,100 

36,397 

427,047 

[5 

7 { 

T O X 

j 291 

12.265 0.054 

. 

360,000 

29,350 

468,000 

38,157 

433,021 

[6 

7 > 


\ 2S4 

II.962 


.1 

354,000 

29,590 

517,000 

43,300 

469,324 

C 7 

4 

6 i 

164 

12.081 

0.031 




598,000 

49,500 

432,132 

[8 

4 

6 1 

164I 

12. II9 0.025^0.042 

340,000 

28,050 

621,000 

51,240 

433,507 


Other tests made at the Watertown Arsenal will next be 


given. 















































34 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS . 


WROUGHT-IRON COLUMNS. 


Latticed Column—Channel Bars Spaced 8" apart. 



Size of Bars. | 

Length. 

Sectional 

Area. 

Lattice 

Spacing. 

Ultimate 

Strength. 

Manner of Failure. 

Actual. 

Per 
sq. in. 



in. 

ft. in. 

sq. in. 

in. 

lbs. 

lbs. 


Flat ends 

6 

IO 

O 

4.760 

18 

174,800 

36,720 

Channels buckled. 

i < 

4 4 

6 

IO 

O 

4.670 

18 

165,000 

35,330 

i i 4i 

Pin ends 

6 

12 

O 

4.600 

18 

159,800 

34.740 

Horizontal deflection. 

ii 

44 

6 

15 

O 

4.480 

18 

151,500 

33,820 

4 4 it 

i i 

44 

6 

17 

6 

4.660 

18 

152,600 

32,750 

4 4 it 

ti 

1 4 

6 

20 

6 

4.660 

18 

136,000 

29,180 

4 i it 

‘ 4 

« 4 

6 

22 

6 

4.570 

18 

139,800 

30,590 

ti 4 4 

if 

4 4 

6 

25 

0 

4.710 

18 

110,000 

23,350 

“ “ 

4 4 

44 

6 

27 

6 

4.690 

18 

102,500 

21,850 

4 4 • 4 

il 

i 4 

6 

30 

0 

4.700 

18 

69,3 JO 

14,740 

4 4 if 

t < 

t 4 

8 

13 

4 

7.520 

18 

261,800 

34,810 

Defl. upward; ch. bars buckled. 

4 4 

4 4 

8 

l6 

8 

7.480 

18 

254,100 

33,970 

“ horizon. “ “ 


44 

8 

20 

0 

7.550 

18 

246,200 

32.610 

44 44 ti it 


4 4 

8 

23 

4 

7.990 

18 

257,500 

32,230 

it it 


4 I 

8 

26 

8 

7.780 

18 

243,900 

3 U 350 

% 4 it 

4i 

4 4 

8 

30 

0 

7.810 

18 

194,100 

24,850 

ti 4 4 

4 i 

4 4 

10 

12 

6 

9.680 

22 

344,120 

35,550 

Channel bars buckled. 

44 

44 

10 

l6 

8 

9.550 

22 

323,200 

33,840 

it H it 

4 4 

44 

10 

20 1 

to 

9.740 

22 

330,000 

33,880 

it it ti 

4 i 

44 

10 

25 

0 

10.040 

22 

342,700 

34-130 

ti it it 

* ‘ 

4 4 

10 

29 

2 

9.300 

22 

299,300 

32,iSo 

Deflection horizontally. 


4 4 

12 

20 

0 

I I .980 

22 

411,600 

34 , 36 o 

Channel bars buckled. 

lS 

t 4 

12 

25 

0 

12.144 

22 

400,000 

32,940 

it ti a 

ti 

4 4 

12 

25 

0 

II .910 

22 

407,800 

34,240 

ti it a 

4 » 

4 4 

12 

30 

0 

12.180 

22 

385,000 

31,610 

a t i it 

4 C 

4 4 

12 

30 

0 

12.540 

22 

393,000 

3 L 340 

Deflection horizontally. 


TESTS OF Z-BAR COLUMNS. 

Some tests were made on iron Z-bar column by C. L. 
Strobel, C.E., and reported in the Trans. Am. Soc., C.E. 
Paper, April, 1888. These tests were fifteen full-sized speci¬ 
mens, in which the central web-plates were replaced by lattice 
bars. The results for lengths ranging from 64 to 88 radii showed 
an average ultimate resistance per square inch of 35,650 lbs. " 
The tabulated values are based upon the formula, 

* / 

46,000 - 125-, 

for lengths exceeding 90 radii and 35,000 for lengths equal to 
or less than 90 radii. 


























COL UMNS. 


35 


Section of column : 4 Z-bars, 2 X 3 ' X 2j''—(latticed). 
Radius of gyration (latticed bars not considered) — 2.05". 


Length of 
Column. 

Sectional Area. 
Square Inches. 

Ultimate 
Strength by 
Actual Tests. 

Lbs. per 
Square Inch. 

Ratio of Length 
to Least Radius 
of Gyration. 

Ultimate 
Strength by 
Formula 

, / 
46,000 — 125--. 

r 

i5'-o" 

9.480 

34,600 

88 

35-000 

15-0" 

9.280 

36,600 

88 

35,ooo 

19-0!" 

9.241 

33,800 

112 

32,200 

19-0I" 

10.104 

33,700 

112 

32,200 

22'-o" 

9.286 

30.700 

129 

29,900 

22 ' —0" 

9.2S6 

29,500 

129 

29,900 

22 / —0" 

9.286 

30,700 

129 

29,000 

25-0’' 

9- j 56 

28,100 

146 

27,750 

25 '-o" 

9-456 

28,000 

146 

27,750 

25 - 0 " 

9.516 

28,400 

146 

27,750 

28—0" 

9-375 

27,700 

164 

25,500 

28—o ; 

9-643 

28,000 

164 

25,500 

28 '-o" 

9-375 

27,600 

164 

25,500 


WROUGHT -1 RON BOX COLUMNS WITH FLAT ENDS. 




Sec¬ 

tional 

Area. 

Ultimate Strength 


Style of Column. 

Total 

Length. 

Total 

Lbs. 

Pounds 
per Sq. 
Inch. 

Manner ot 
Failure. 

Two 6 " channels 5.5 inches apart, 
flanges turned out with two £- 
inch cover-plates. 

10 7.9 

12.08 

383,200 

3 1 >722 

Plates buckeled be- 

do. do. 

10 7.9 

II . II 

372,900 

33,564 

tween the rivets. 

Two 8" channels 7.6 inches apart, 
flanges turned out with two T V 
inch cover-plates. 

13 11.8 

17.01 

594 , 5 oo 

34.950 

do. 

do. do. 

13 11.8 

17.80 

633,600 

35,595 

Triple flexure. 

Four plates connected with four 
angles forming a box 7" x 7 
inside. 

13 11.9 

15-74 

517,000 

32.846 

Ruckling plates. 

Plates and angles all T V' thick. 

13 11.6 

15-84 

555 , 2 oo 

35-050 

Buckling plates. 

do. do. 

20 7.63 

15 68 

5 1 7,500 

33,003 

Deflecting upward. 

do. do. 

20 7.80 

15 56 

536,900 

34,505 

Buckling plates. 

Single web columns with 3i-inch 
pin-ends. 

One t 5 b" web 8" wide with four 
angles, and 8" channels used in 
place of cover-plates, flanges 
outward. 

9 

13 4 

15 34 

47,500 

30,965 

Deflecting upward 
in plane of pin. 


Strength of Steel Columns.— Experiments thus far upon 
steel struts indicate that for lengths up to 90 radii of gyration 
their ultimate strength is about 20 per cent, higher than for 
wrought-iron. Beyond this point the excess of strength dimin¬ 
ishes & until it becomes zero at about 200 radii. After passing 
this limit the compression resistance of steel and wrought-iron 
seems to become practically equal. 





































3 ^ 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF WROUGHT-IRON COLUMNS. 

40000 


Square ends. By formula 


1 + 


(12 iy 


36 ooor 2 

/ = length in feet, r = least radius of gyration in inches. 

To be used for columns not cylindrical. For safe load take 
\ the ultimate. 


/ 

r 

Ultimate 
Strength 
in lbs. 

per 
sq.in. 


l 

r 

Ultimate 
Strength 
in lbs. 

per 
sq. in. 

/ 

r 

Ultimate 
Strength 
in lbs. 

per 
sq. in. 


l 

r 

Ultimate 
Strength 
in lbs. 

per 
sq. in. 

l 

r 

Ultimate 
Strength 
in lbs. 

per 
sq. in. 

3 -o 

38,610 


6.0 

34,970 

9.0 

30,210 


12.0 

25,380 

15-5 

20,290 

3-2 

38,430 


6.2 

34,670 

9.2 

29,880 


12.2 

25,070 

15.8 

20,020 

3.4 

38,230 


6.4 

34.370 

9.4 

29.550 


12.4 

24,770 

16.0 

19,760 

3.6 

38,030 


6.6 

34,060 

9.6 

29,230 


12.6 

24,470 

16.2 

19,510 

3.8 

37,820 


6.8 

33,750 

9.8 

28,900 


12.8 

24,170 

16.5 

I 9, f 50 

4.0 

37,590 


7.0 

33,440 

10.0 

28,570 


13.0 

23,870 

16.8 

18,790 

4.2 

37,360 


7.2 

33,130 

10.2 

28,250 


13.2 

23,570 

17.0 

18,550 

4.4 

37,120 


7-4 

32,810 

10 4 

27,920 


13.5 

23,140 

17.2 

18,320 

4.6 

36,870 


7.6 

32,490 

10.6 

27,600 


13.8 

22,700 

17.5 

17,980 

4.8 

36,620 


7.8 

32,170 

10.8 

27,270 


14.0 

22,420 

17.8 

17,640 

5.0 

36,360 


8.0 

31,850 

11.0 

26,950 


14.2 

22,150 

18.0 

17,420 

5-2 

36,090 


8.2 

3 L 520 

n.2 

26,640 


14.5 

21,740 

18.2 

17.200 

5.4 

35,820 


8.4 

31.190 

11.4 

26,320 


14.8 

3 L 320 

18.5 

16,880 

5-6 

35,540 


8.6 

30,870 

11.6 

26,000 


15.0 

21,050 

18.8 

16,570 

5-8 

35,260 


8.8 

30,540 

11.8 

1 

25,690 


15.2 

20,790 

19.0 

16,370 


Radius of Gyration .—In order to find the strength of long columns we need 
to know r 2 , or the square of the radius of gyration. 

We have, in general. 



r 2 = - , 

A 


r = vlr 


where r is the radius of gyration, / is 
the moment of inertia of the cross-sec¬ 
tion to the required axis, and A is the 
area of the cross-section. 

The moment of inertia of such built- 
up sections, as in Fig. 30, with reference 
to the axis through its own centre of gravity parallel to its breadth, is 1 \bd z , or 


/ = 


_ bd z - (W+W+ b t ndj+b nil d n f) 
12 


N.B .—If — = f of an inch, b. ~ i-J- inches. 
2 



















































COLUMNS. 


37 


ELEMENTS OF Z-BAR 


COLUMNS. 


/ = Moment of inertia. 
A — Area. 


X 



R — Radius of gyration. 


The Thickness of Web Plate and Z-Bar is the Same. 


Size of Z-Bar 
in Inches. 


3$- x 6 x 3$ x | 
3 t 9 g x 6ts x 3 9 0 x /g 
3 ft x6ft x 3 f xft 
3 ft x 6 x 3 ft x^g 
3 i 9 « x 6 ie x 3i 9 b x f 

3ft x6J- x 3 $ x [ft 
3 ft x 6 x 3 | xf 

3 is x 6 t x s x 3l 9 B x ftf 
3ft x6ft x 3 f x£ 


3ib x 5 x 3t 3 b x j% 
3 i x 5 ts x 3ft xf 
3 ib x 5 k x 3t 5 b x t 7 8 
332 x 5 x 33 7 5 x ft 

33 9 2 x 5 tb x 3a 9 5 x T 9 5 
332 x 5 ft X 3 b£ X -f 
3 ft x 5 x 3 i x x -6 
3 ib x 5 tb x 3 ib x ft 


2ft x 4 X2ftxft 

2l|X4lBX2l§X If 

3 x 4ft x 3 x f 

2§ft X 4 X 2§ft X t 7 s 

332 X 4ie X 352 X ft 

3J?3 X 4ft X 3 3*2 X 
3 TB X 4 x 3 l*B x ft 
3ft x 4f 1 s x 3 ft x 1ft 
3i 3 b x 4ft x^xi 


2ft X 3 X2ft xft 

2 tb x 3rg x 2fft x X 5 S 

2f x 3 ft X2j Xf 
2 §2 X 3 X 2fft X t 7 b 
2|iX 3l 1 B X2|ixft 


7" Web Plate. 7ft" Face to Face. 


7ft" Web Plate. 7}" Face to Face. 


Area 
of 4 Z 
Bars 

Axis XX . 

Axis 

YY . 

Area 
of 4 Z- 
Bars 

Axis XX . 

Axis YY . 

and 1 





and 1 





Plate. 

/. 

A*. 

/. 

A 2 . 

Plate. 

I . 

A 2 . 

I . 

A 2 . 

20.99 

264.18 

12.59 

287.91 

13-72 

21.17 

299-34 

14.14 

287.91 

13.60 

24.62 

306.41 

12.45 

346-95 

14 09 

24.84 

347 -30, 

13.98 

346.95 

13-97 

28.26 

347 - 8 i 

12.31 

409.27 

14.48 

28.51 

392.86 

13-78 

409.28 

14-36 

30.66 

365 ■ 2 4 

II .9I 

426.30 

13.90 

3°-94 

415-23 

13-42 

426.31 

13-78 

34.22 

403.02 

11.78 

489.32 

14 - 3 ° 

34-53 

458.45 

13.28 

489-33 

14.17 

37 81 

440.25 

11.64 

555-79 

14.70 

38.16 

500.93 

13 13 

455.80 

14-57 

39 81 

448.24 

11.26 

562.41 

14 13 

40.19 

5 ii -45 

12.73 

562 42 

13-99 

43.21 

481.06 

11.13 

628.31 

14-54 

43.61 

549.08 

12.59 

628.33 

14.41 

46.77 

514-73 

II .OO 

699 07 

14-95 

47-20 

587.80 

12.45 

699.10 

14.81 

6ft" Web Plate. 6}" 

Face to Face. 

7" Web Plate. 7ft" Face to Face. 

15-47 

169 65 

10.97 

147-39 

9-53 

15-63 

i 93 - 9 i 

12.41 

147-39 

9-43 

18.64 

202.04 

10.84 

18347 

9 84 

18.83 

231 .OO 

12.27 

i 83-47 

9-74 

21.84 

233-93 

IO.7I 

223.00 

10.21 

22.06 

26761 

12.13 

223.00 

IO. II 

24.17 

249.97 

10 34 

234-39 

9.70 

24.42 

287.67 

11.78 

234-39 

9.60 

27.30 

279-93 

10.25 

273.72 

10.03 

27.58 

321.22 

11.65 

273.72 

9-93 

30.46 

308.80 

TO. 14 

315-55 

10.36 

30.78 

354-42 

1152 

315-56 

10.25 

32.31 

316 97 

9.81 

320.08 

9.91 

32.65 

364 83 

II . 17 

320.09 

9.80 

35 44 

343-48 

9.69 

362 93 

IO.24 

35 - 8 i 

395•52 

II.O4 

362.95 

10.14 

6" Web Plate. 6ft" Face to Face. 

6ft" Web Plate. 6f" 

Face to Face. 

10.78 

101.90 

9-45 

65.72 

6.10 

IO. 91 

117.62 

10.78 

65.72 

6.02 

i 3 - 5 2 

126.20 

9-34 

85.86 

6-35 

13-67 

I 45-72 

10.66 

85.86 

6.28 

16.25 

149.91 

9 - 2 3 

107.47 

6.61 

16.44 

173.18 

10.53 

107.47 

6.54 

18.47 

166.01 

8-99 

115-63 

6.26 

18.68 

192.14 

10.29 

115.64 

6.19 

21.24 

188.60 

8.88 

138-44 

6.52 

21.49 

218.39 

10.16 

138-45 

6.44 

24.02 

210.67 

8.77 

163.09 

6.79 

24.30 

244.05 

10.04 

163.10 

6.71 

25-87 

221.2T 

8-55 

166.90 

6-45 

26.18 

256.76 

9-83 

166.91 

6.39 

28.69 

242.T 2 

8.44 

192.70 

6 72 

29.O3 

281.15 

9.69 

IQ2.70 

6.64 

3 i- 5 ° 

262.65 

8.32 

220.68 

7.01 

31.88 

305.12 

9-57 

220.70 

6.92 

5 ft" Web Plate. 5 f" 

Face to Face. 

6" Web Plate. 6ft" Face to Face. 

9.14 

7 2 • 59 

7-94 

3 i -74 

3-47 

9.26 

84.82 

9.16 

3 i 74 

3-43 

11.48 

90.17 

7-85 

42.14 

3-67 

11.64 

io 5 - 3 i 

9-05 

42.15 

3.62 

13.82 

107.05 

7 75 

53-40 

3.86 

14 01 

125.14 

8-93 

53 - 4 i 

3.81 

15-53 

115.58 

7-44 

55 - 6 i 

3-58 

15-75 

135-63 

8.61 

55 - 6 i 

3-53 

17-75 

i 3 0-45 

7-35 

67.20 

3-79 

18.00 

I 53-14 

8.51 

67.20 

3-73 


















































































38 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


ELEMENTS OF Z-BAR COLUMNS. 


7 = Moment of inertia. 



The Thickness of Web Plate and Z-Bar is the Same. 



8" Web Plate. 8J" Face to Face. 1 

8£" Web Plate. 8£" 

Face to Face. 

Size of Z-Bar 

Area 

Axis XX. 

Axis 

YY. 

Area 

Axis XX. 

Axis YY. 

in Inches. 

of 4 Z- 





of 4 Z- 











Bars 





** 

and 1 





and 1 






Plate. 

/. 

A 2 . 

7 . 

A 2 . 

Plate. 

/. 

A 2 . 

I. 

A 2 . 

ol x 6 X5i x| 

21.36 

337-17 

15-78 

287.92 

13.48 

21.55 

377-65 

17-52 

287.92 

13-36 

3 *x 6 A>c 3 ^W s 

25.06 

391-37 

15.62 

346.96 

13-85 

25.28 

438 55 

17-35 

346.96 

13-73 

3i x 6§- X3I x £ 

28.76 

444-57 

15.46 

409.28 

14.23 

29.01 

498.35 

17.18 

409.29 

14.11 

3^ x 6 x 3 £ x A 

31.22 

469.16 

15-03 

426.32 

13-65 

31 50 

527-03 

16.73 

426.33 

13 53 

3 is x 61s x 3 t 9 6 x | 

34 - 8 + 

5*8-19 

14.88 

489.34 

14-05 

35-15 

582.27 

16.65 

489-35 

13.92 

o 4 x 64 x 3I x 

38-50 

566.43 

14.72 

555-82 

14.44 

38.84 

636.74 

16.39 

555-83 

I 4 - 3 1 

J8 0 JO 10 

34 x 6 x 34 x |- 

40.56 

579-76 

14.29 

562.44 

13-87 

40-94 

653.06 

15-95 

562.46 

13-74 

q T l x 6 A x 3 A x 12 

44.02 

622.59 

14.14 

628.36 

14.27 

44-43 

701.62 

15-79 

628.38 

14.14 

Jib It) Jib 10 

3 i x 64 x 3 f x| 

47.64 

666.83 

14.00 

699.13 

14.67 

48.08 

751.66 

15-63 

699-15 

14-54 


74" Web Plate. 74" 

Face to Face. 

8" Web Plate. 8£" Face to Face. 

3 A x? x 3 A x A 

15-78 

220.13 

13-95 

147-39 

9-35 

15-94 

248.29 

15-58 

147-39 

9-25 

Jib J Jib 10 

3 * x 5 A x 34 x f 

19.01 

262.32 

13.80 

183-47, 

9-65 

19.20 

296.02 

15.42 

183.48 

9.56 

3 A x 54 x 3 A x A 

22.28 

303.96 

13-64 

223.00 

10.01 

22.50 

343-21 

15-25 

223.01 

9.91 

335 x 5 x 335 x i 

24.67 

327-56 

13.28 

234.40 

9-50 

24.92 

370-53 

14.87 

234.40 

9.41 

335 X 5 A X 3 A X A 

27.96 

365-87 

I 3 -I 3 

273■73 

9-83 

28.14 

414.08 

14.72 

273-74 

9-73 

333 x si- x 3AA x 4 

31.09 

403-93 

22.99 

315 - 57 , 

10.15 

31.40 

457-31 

14.56 

3 I 5-58 

10.05 

J*)* JO Joi J 

X? X 5 i XH 

33-00 

416.75 

12.63 

320.10 

9.70 

33-34 

472.79 

14.18 

320.12 

9.60 

04 J _ J 4 lb 

3 i 6 8 X 5 T 1 B X 3 I 5 B xf 

36.19 

452-01 

12.49 

362.96] 

10.03 

36.56 

5 I 3-78 

14.05 

362.98 

9-93 


7" Web Plate. 74" Face to Face. 

7 £" Web Plate. 7 |" 

Face to Face. 

2J X 4 X 2 l xl 

11.03 

134-71 

12.21 

65.72 

5.96 

ix.16 

153-17 

13-72 

65.72 

5-89 

2 ll X 4 A X 2^1 X if 

1383 

166.97 

12.07 

85.86 

6.21 

13.98 

i 89-95 

13-59 

85.86 

6.14 

3 X44 x 3 xf 

16.63 

198.52 

11.94 

107.47 

6.46 

16.81 

225.94 

13-44 

107.47 

6-39 

2§5 X 4 X 2§J X A 

18.90 

220.75 

11.68 

H5.64 

6.12 

19.12 

251.40 

I 3 -I 5 

115.64 

6.05 

335 X 4A X 335 X i 

21.74 

250.90 

n -54 

138-45 

6-37 

21.99 

286.10 

13.01 

138.46 

6.30 

335 X 4i X 3A x A 

24.58 

280.48 

11.41 

163.10 

6.64 

24.86 

319.96 

12.87 

163.11 

6.56 

3 tb X 4 X 3 A x 4 

26.50 

295-54 

11.15 

166.92 

6.30 

26.81 

337-59 

12-59 

166.93 

6.23 

3i x 4 A x 3 4 X|| 

29-37 

323-83 

11 - 0.3 

I 92-73 

6 56 

29.72 

370.17 

14-45 

192.74 

6.49 

3i 3 b x 44 x 3 Axf 

32.25 

351-60 

10.90 

220.72 

6.84 

32.63 

402.09 

12.32 

220.73 

6-77 


64 " Web Plate. 64" 

Face to Face. 

7" Web Plate. 7 J" 

Face to Face. 

24 x 3 X2f xj 

9-39 

98.12 

10.45 

3 i -74 

3-38 

9 - 5 i 

112.65 

; 11.85 

3 i -74 

3-34 

2& x 3 A x zH x A 

n -79 

121.99 

' io -35 

42.15 

358 

n -95 

140.07 

' 11.71 

42.15 

3-53 

2 | X 3 4 X 2 j X 4 

14.20 

144.98 

; 10.21 

53 - 4 i 

3-76 

14-39 

166.6c 

> n.58 

53 - 4 i 

3 - 7 i 

2§5 X 3 X 2 U X A 

15.96 

I 57-65 

; 9.88 

55-62 

3-49 

16.18 

181.67 

f 11.23 

55-62 

- 3-44 

2f§ X 318 X 2 §§ X 4 

18.25 

178.09 

1 9.76 

67.21 

3.68 

18.50 

205.35 

l II.IO 

67.21 

3 - 6 * 











































































COL UMNS. 


39 


SAFE LOADS IN TONS OF 2000 LBS. 

* Steel Z-Bar Columns, Square Ends. 

Allowed strains per square inch for steel, safety factor 4: 
12,000 lbs. for lengths of 90 radii or under. 

17,100-57- for lengths over 90 radii. 

T 


6" STEEL Z-BAR COLUMNS. 

Section : 4 Z-bars 3" deep and 1 web plate 5I" x thickness of Z bars. 


Length of 
Column 
in Feet. 

*>.2 VO 

M 00 

K\\ 

73 Qo 
tJ <*c 

2 11 a 

2 o' 

O' Os 
m cy m 

i! 

73 h o 

H—> M (-1 

QJ *“• 

2 ll/S 

<v 

% Metal = 46.2 
lbs. = 13.6 sq. in. 
r (min.) — i 88. 

Q.c < 4 ) 

m • 

cr M 

/loll 

0 M C 

S II S 

6 

O'” - ' On 
to • 

cr M 
!l * 11 

vo " 
cj 

qj M C 

2 11'i 

vp* tfi T' 

r-N n tv 

O'C ^ 

o' 

vo • • 
cr m 

1 ! w 
— 0. 1 

aj o’ 

*-» CS c 
qj 

2 IIH 

12 and under 

55-9 

70.3 

81.6 

95-8 

105-7 

119.8 

14 

55-7 

703 

81.6 

95 8 

105.7 

hq.8 

l6 

5 2 • 3 

66.5 

76.6 

9 1 3 

99-9 

114.8 

18 

48.8 

62,3 

71.7 

85.6 

93-6 

107.8 

20 

45-4 

58.1 

66.7 

79-9 

87.2 

100.8 

22 

42.0 

53-9 

61.8 

74-3 

80.9 

93-8 

24 

38.6 

49-7 

56-9 

68.6 

74.6 

86.8 

26 

35-2 

45-5 

S 1 -9 

63.0 

68.2 

79.8 

28 

3 i -7 

4 i -3 

47.0 

57-3 

61.9 

72.8 

30 

28.3 

37 • 1 

42.0 

5 1 -7 

55-5 

65.8 


8" STEEL Z-BAR COLUMNS. 

Section : 4 Z-bars 4" deep and i web plate 6^" x thickness of Z-bars. 


Length of 
Column 
in Feet. 

tt. 

CO . -<f 

m cr d 

II w 

J1 roll 

^ M x-v 

4 -* w rj 
flj *-4 

2 II S 

T S B Metal = 48.1 
lbs. = 14.7 sq. in 
r (min.) = 2.52. 

9.2 tt 

00 . ^ 

10 cr cJ 

I' “ 11 

+-1 H _H 

iD 

2 11 a 

t^C • 

.0 
. •'t- 

cr « 

II C/D 

jl 0 11 

rt 0''"7 

4 -* ^ f- 
qj 

£ ll/s 
•SjS'w 

^.2 ^ 

^ cr cl 

/;« 

73 

4 -J N pH 

flj Cl 

•a 11 a 

7.5 d 

Tt- VO 

00 cr <n 

"«n 
s 37 

qi G 

2 II | 

% Metal = 89.2 
lbs. --- 26.3 sq. in. 
r (min.) = 2.52. 

Metal — 98 8 
lbs. — 29.0 sq. in. 
r (min ) — 2.58. 

% Metal = 108.4 
lbs. = 31.9 sq. in. 
r (min.) — 2.63. 

18 and | 
under f 

67-5 

84.8 

102.4 

114.2 

H 

ro 

H 

148.5 

157-5 

174-3 

191.2 

20 

65.0 

82.5 

100.5 

110.5 

128.2 

146.4 

153-3 

i 7 i -3 

189.6 

22 

61.9 

78.7 

95-9 

105.3 

122.4 

139-9 

146.2 

163 -5 

181.3 

24 

58.8 

74.8 

9 r -3 

IOO. I 

116.5 

133-4 

i 39 -i 

155-8 

i 73 -o 

26 

55-7 

71 .O 

86.8 

94.8 

110.6 

126.9 

132.0 

148.1 

164.7 

28 

52.6 

67.1 

82.3 

89.6 

104.7 

120.3 

124.8 

140.4 

156.4 

30 

49.4 

63-3 

77-7 

84.4 

98.8 

113.8 

117.7 

132.7 

148.2 

32 

46.3 

59-5 

73-2 

79.2 

93 -° 

107-3 

no.6 

125.0 

139-9 

34 

43 - 2 

55-6 

68.7 

74.0 

87.1 

100.8 

103-5 

H 7-3 

131.6 

36 

40.1 

51.8 

64.1 

68.7 

81.2 

94-3 

96.4 

109.6 

123-3 

38 

37 -o 

48.0 

59-6 

63.5 

75-3 

87.8 

89.4 

101.9 

115-0 

40 

33-9 

44.1 

55 -o 

58.3 

69-5 

81.3 

82.2 

94.2 

106.7 


* From Carnegie, Phipps & Co.’s Hand Books. 













































40 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS . 


SAFE LOADS IN TONS OF 2000 LBS. 

Steel Z-Bar Columns, Square Ends. 

Allowed strains per square inch for steel, safety factor 4 : 
12,000 lbs. for lengths of 90 radii or under. 

17,100-57- for lengths over 90 radii. 


10" STEEL Z-BAR COLUMNS. 

Section : 4 Z-bars 5" deep and 1 web plate 7" x thickness of Z-bars. 


Length of 
Column 
in Feet. 

i 6 b Metal 1= 53.7 
lbs. = 15.8 sq. in. 
r (min.) = 3.08. 

% Metal — 64.7 
lbs. = 19.0 sq. in. 
r (min.) ^ 3.13. 

°°-£ o 6 

IT) M 

N ' * 

CT rn 

J! “ n 

s»/! 

**!Sj§ v. 

Metal = 83.3 
lbs. = 24.5 sq. in. 1 
r (min.) = 3.10. 

N C • 

4 - £ 

CT* ro 

ji;n 

aJ 

<y C 

S«b 

T 

% Metal = 105.2 

lbs. = 30.9 sq. in. 

r (min.) = 3.21. 

0 c • 

• m 

M M 

M 

^ CT 

!l " II 
«£d 

£ "I 

00 A • 

«-S<2 

cs . . 

M Q'tO 

Oi 

3 £ 2 
£ 11 s 

vo c . 

• k-. LO. 

Cl-- N 
m . 

II q H 

£ 11 a 

«w> 5 ? v 

22 and ( 
under \ 

94-7 

II4.2 

133-9 

147.0 

M 

On 

On 

to 

185.6 

196.0 

214.9 

234.0 

24 

92.8 

112.6 

I 33 -I 

144.6 

164.8 

185-3 

193.6 

213 9 

234.0 

26 

89 -3 

108.6 

128.3 

139.2 

158 7 

178.7 

186.5 

206.2 

226.6 

28 

85 8 

104.4 

123-5 

133-8 

152-7 

172. I 

179-3 

198.5 

218.4 

30 

82.3 

3 00.2 

118.7 

128.4 

146.7 

165.5 

172.2 

190.8 

210.2 

32 

78.8 

96.1 

113.8 

123.0 

140.7 

158.9 

165.0 

183.1 

202.0 

34 

75-3 

91.9 

109 . I 

117.6 

134-7 

’52-3 

157-9 

175-4 

193.8 

36 

71.8 

87.8 

104.3 

I 12.2 

128.7 

145-7 

150.7 

167.8 

185.6 

38 

08.3 

83.6 

99 5 

106.8 

122.7 

x 39 - 1 

143.6 

160 0 

177-4 

40 

64.8 

79-4 

94-7 

IOI .4 

116.7 

132.5 

136-5 

152.3 

169.1 

42 

6T.3 

75-3 

89.9 

96.0 

110.6 

125 9 

129.4 

144.6 

160.9- 

44 

57-7 

71.1 

85.1 

90.6 

104.6 

119-3 

122.2 

136.9 

152.7 

46 

54-2 

67.0 

80.3 

85.2 

98.6 

II2.7 

115-1 

129.2 

144-5 

48 

50-7 

62 8 

75 5 

79.8 

92 6 

106.1 

107.9 

121.5 

136.3: 

50 

47.2 

58.6 

70.7 

74-4 

86.6 

99-5 

100.8 

113.8 

128.1 


12" STEEL Z-BAR COLUMNS. 

Section : 4 Z-bars 6 " deep and 1 web plate 8" x thickness of Z-bars. 



(N VO 

•LS « 

in 

00 • • 

°o S £ 

ON \ * 

cj (4 . 

v §-: q 

in -* . 

. C iT) 

00 — 

O' _* . 

ST.? 

00 -• . 
* 1.5 00 
£ 

O'-’ . 

, 4.5 'O 

M d • 

vo 


cr <0 

cr ro 

cr 1 ro 

*■* cr 1 ro 

h cr ^ 

*- cr rr> 

CT ro 

m rn 

»- cr ro. 

Length of 

11 :n 

11 

1105 II 
^ 00 II 

11 « 11 

11 * H 

II “11 

0 

II h 'I 

11 ”11 

Column 

Ci M 

rt LT)^' 

rt 00 -*"> 

3 ^>d 



1£d 



in Feet. 

tJ N c 

w N s 

v N c 

5 ^d 

2 -i-d 

§ 11 a 

§ 11 a 

S 11 a 

s ".I 

S "I 

s if! 

s"! 

s 

£ l! a 



*Sj§ V. 

3 ?j 3 k 



«£ * 

* 

"Sj k. 

^1 ^ 

26 and 1 
under f 

128.3 

150.3 

172.6 

187-3 

209.1 

231.0 

243.0 

264.5 

286.1 

28 

127.0 

149.7 

172 5 

186.0 

208.9 

230.3 

240.8 

261.4 

2821 

30 

123.0 

145-1 

167.6 

180.2 

202.5 

223.3 

233.2 

253.2 

273.2 

32 

119.0 

140.5 

162.4 

174-5 

196.1 

216.3 

225.7 

245.0 

264.2 

34 

115-1 

135-9 

157-2 

168.7 

189.8 

209.2 

218.2 

236.7 

255-2 

36 

III . I 

131-3 

152.0 

162.9 

183.4 

202. I 

210.6 

228.4 

246.3 

38 

107. I 

126.7 

146.8 

i 57 -i 

177 0 

195-i 

203.1 

220.2 

237-3 

40 

103.1 

122.1 

141-5 

151-4 

170.7 

188.0 

195.6 

211.9 

228.3 

42 

99.1 

117-5 

136.3 

145-5 

164.4 

ON 

6 

00 

H 

188.0 

203.7 

219.4 

44 

95 -i 

112.9 

131 • 1 

139.8 

158.0 

173-9 

180.5 

195-5 

210.4 

46 

91.2 

108.3 

126.2 

134.0 

151.6 

166.8 

172.9 

187.2 

201.4 

48 

87.2 

103.6 

120.7 

128 2 

145 - 3 ' 

159-8 

165.4 

179.0 

192.4 

50 

83.2 

99.1 

115-5 

122.4 

138.9 

152.7 

157-9 

170.7 

183.5 























































COL UMJVS. 


41 


SAFE LOADS IN TONS OF 2000 LBS. 

Steel Z-Bar Columns, Square Ends. 

Allowed strains per square inch for steel, safety factor 4: 
12,000 lbs. for lengths of 90 radii or under. 

17,100-57- for lengths over 90 radii. 


14" STEEL Z-BAR COLUMNS. 

Section : 4 Z-bars 6 %" x ffl '. 1 web plate 8" x ty ". 2 side plates 14" wide. 



vo 

VO 




Tt* 


T}* 



vo . 

N . 

00 . 


(4i 
. 00 

VO* . 

cl . 

CO . 



0 C 0 
M ~co 

M 

H 00 

-S«g 

° 2 .E « 

. 00 

oc 4 . 

OO 

8 .S 

OO 

g.S A 

00 

«- S c£ 


II & ro 

il cr rn 

II cr w 

II cr m 

II cr ro 

II cr ro 

1 ! d" M 

II cr d. 

II cr 

Length of 

£ 0 ll 

£<£ II 

s 2,11 

73 1/3 II 

V co *« 1 

^ n 11 

V O II 

73 1/3 [I 

QJ 00 11 

73 ^ II 

0 -» LO '• 

73 ^ 1| 

O W 11 

0 , ■» it 

flj O 11 

Column 
in Feet. 

g*d 



£ *o C 

,2 »o R 

|k 3 

2 s 'OR 

% MO 

iSx c - 

a#s 

11 a 

\P 0 . C 

H c n , 

^ 11 a 

^ c r . 

^ 11 a 

^ ll's 

\P 0 . « 
lf5\ c /5 

II B 

f)C 0 C 

*-*V c/3 

^ II g 

a*? 

^ II g 

i“i 


X X *>- 

X X 

X X V 

v n k 

X X V 

X X ^ 

X X ^ 

X X v 

X X ^ 







1 

**t* ' 




M 

*-« 

ft 

M 

M 

M 

M 

M 

M 

28 and 1 
under j 

294.0 

3 ° 4-5 

315.0 

325-5 

336 o 

346.5 

357-0 

367-5 

378.0 

3 ° 

286.6 

297.2 

307.7 

318.3 

to 

00 

VC 

339-5 

350.0 

360.4 

370 - 9 ' 

32 

277.8 

288.1 

298.3 

308.6 

318.9 

329.2 

339-4 

349-5 

359-7 

34 

269.0 

278.9 

288.9 

298.9 

308 9 

318.9 

328.8 

338.6 

348.6 

36 

260.1 

269.8 

279-5 

289.2 

298.9 

308.6 

318.2 

3 2 7.7 

337-4 

38 

25 1 3 

260.7 

270. I 

279-5 

289.0 

298.3 

307.6 

316.8 

326.2 

40 

242.5 

251.6 

260.7 

269.7 

278.9 

288.0 

297.0 

306.0 

3 i 5 -o 

42 

233-7 

242 5 

251-3 

260.1 

269.0 

277.8 

286.4 

295.1 

303. S 

44 

224.9 

233-3 

241.9 

250.4 

258.9 

267.4 

275.8 

284.2 

292.6 

46 

216.0 

224.3 

232.4 

240.7 

249.0 

257.2 

265.2 

273-3 

281.5 

48 

207.2 

215.1 

223.0 

230.9 

238 9 

246.9 

254.6 

262.4 

270.3 

50 

198.4 

206.0 

213.6 

221.3 

229.0 

236.5 

244.0 

251-5 

259.1 


14" STEEL Z-BAR COLUMNS. 

Section : 4 Z-bars 6" x % // . 1 web plate 8" x 2 side plates 14" wide. 


Length of 
Column 
in Feet. 


28 and / 
under f 

3 ° 

32 

34 

36 

38 

40 

42 

44 

46 

48 

50 


14 * % Plates = 173.4 
lbs. = 51.0 sq. in. 
r (min.) = 3.75. 

cr\ . 

ET.S« 

II cr ro 

II 

°;ira 

t-E X- 

|H 71 . 

X JD ^ 

M 

14xU Plates = 185.3 1 
lbs. == 54.5 sq. in. 
r (min.) = 3.77. 

CO 

M • 

II cr A 

71 4/3 II 

QJ CO 11 

°;n a 

<*2 -o- 

M 71 , 

X x v. 

H 

w 

N . 

g'.S 

11 cr n 

71 * ,| 

0 0 11 
d 00 -*> 

~ -OC 

^ ll *5 

vao . G 

i»N 71 

X -O ^ 

H 

N 

CO • 

g.S d 
°°. 

11 cr m 

71 ^ || 

4J CO 11 

^ 11 ■§ 

fKO # ® 
thH ^ 

X -O ^ 

h A 

II & CO 

05 1/5 II 

<u 10 11 

^ iig 

^ 7)7 

X ^ 

^ ’ 

H 

ir> . 

s-a«s 

II d* 

05 ^ || 

H; CO 11 

r,IH 05 * 

X X v. 

q 

M • 

N fl M 
cj .w2 N 
. 

II cr ro 

05 m |[ 

<u 0 lf 

rt *^>^7 
JSx c 

irs 

NflO . C 
^ 71 . 

X _Q ^ 

M 

306.0 

3 i 6.5 

327.0 

337-5 

348.0 

358.5 

369.O 

379-5 

390.0 

296.7 

307.2 

317-8 

328.3 

338 9 

349-4 

359-9 

370-5 

.381.1 

287.4 

297.6 

307.9 

318.2 

32S 4 

338-7 

348-9 

359 -i 

369- + 

278.1 

288.0 

298.0 

308.0 

318.0 

327-9 

337-8 

347-8 

357 -S 

268.8 

278.4 

288.2 

297.9 

3°7 4 

317-2 

326.8 

336.4 

346.1 

259-5 

268.8 

278.3 

287.7 

297.0 

306.4 

315.7 

325-1 

334-5 

250.2 

259-3 

268.4 

277-5 

286 5 

295-6 

304-7 

313-7 

322. S'- 

240.9 

249.7 

258.5 

267.3 

276.1 

284 8 

293.6 

302.4 

311.2 

231.6 

240.1 

248.6 

2571 

265.6 

274.1 

282.5 

291.0 

299.6 

222.4 

230.5 

238.7 

246.9 

255 • 1 

263.4 

271-5 

279.7 

287.9 

213.0 

220.9 

228.8 

236.8 

244.7 

252.6 

260.4 

268.3 

276.2 

203.7 

211.3 

219.0 

226.6 

234.2 

241.8 

249.4 

257.0 

264.6 



















































42 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 





SAFE LOADS IN TONS OF 2000 LBS. 

Steel Z-Bar Columns, Square Ends. 

Allowed strains per square inch for steel, safety factor 4: 
12,000 lbs. for lengths of 90 radii or under. 

17,100-57- for lengths over 90 radii. 


14" STEEL Z-BAR COLUMNS. 

Section : 4 Z-bars 6N' x iI''- 1 we t> plate 8" x 2 side plates 14" wide. 



VO 

m 




CO 

m 

01 

01 


to . 

• 

. 

CO . 

o> . 

in . 

M . 

t^s , 

rn . 


‘S.S A 

oc • 

M -- s 

g\S 10 

8.5 "O 

O G ^ 

s-s« 

s.s~ 

w C A 

co g 0 

04 .= ° 

00 


II O' rn 

II cr A 

II cr ro 

II cr A 

II cr A 

li cr m 

II cr m 

II a* m 

II cr rn 

Length of 

c/) ^ II 
vo II 

8 mil 

c« w 11 

Q; M •< 

C /5 4/3 || 
u co * 

tr “ || 

0/ VO 11 

C /5 ^ j| 

qj rn '• 

W 73 II 
a; m 11 

0) ■" II 
<u 00 II 

eo " J || 
vo 

Column 




■*— * ■ 

* H- 

ra . 

rt 'C >'"5 

Sven 

cd 00 O 

in Feet. 

^ ll| 

\Q0 . O 

04 II | 

^ II B 

^ II1 
®S • — 

1 c n . 

'o c 
5,110 

\P0 3 

(/. 

— 'C' c 

04 II 0 

H|H C/2 ^ 

-'Cc 

^ Up 

vr . 5 

07s 75 

— VO c 

II0 

CW . c 

IHM ^ 

(1 0 
SCO . 5, 
t>s ^ 


x n k 

x jS ^ 

xxs V. 

Vf) K 

X X 

V (**2 k. 

x x ^ 

x x V. 

X JD k 


M 

M 

-T' ' 

M 

M 

Tf-’ - ' 

M 

H 

'^ P “* 


rf-’ - ' 

26 and j 
under ’ 

327-5 

338.0 

348.5 

359 -o 

369-5 

380.0 

390.5 

401.0 

4115 

28 

326.7 

337-5 

348.5 

359 -o 

369-5 

380.0 

390-5 

401 .O 

411-5 

30 

316.7 

327.2 

337-7 

348.3 

358.9 

369-5 

380.0 

390.6 

401 . I 

32 

206.6 

3 J 8.o 

327.2 

337-4 

347-7 

358.0 

368.2 

378-5 

388.8 

34 

296.6 

306.6 

316.6 

326.5 

336.5 

346-5 

356.4 

366.4 

376.4 

t6 

2S6.7 

296.4 

306.0 

3 * 5-7 

325-3 

335-0 

344-7 

354-3 

364.0 

38 

276.7 

286.0 

205.4 

304.8 

3 T 4 ■ 2 

323.6 

332-9 

342-3 

35 i -7 

40 

266.6 

275-7 

284.8 

293-9 

3 ° 3 -o 

312.1 

321.2 

330.3 

339-3 

42 

256.6 

265-5 

274-3 

283.0 

291.8 

300.6 

3 ° 9-4 

318.2 

327.0 

44 

246 6 

255-2 

263.6 

272.2 

280.6 

289.2 

297.6 

306.1 

3 * 4-6 

46 

236.6 

244.9 

253 -o 

261.3 

269.5 

277.7 

285.8 

294.0 

302.3 

48 

226.7 

234.6 

242.5 

250.4 

258.3 

266.2 

274.1 

282.0 

290.0 

50 

216.6 

224.3 

231.0 

239-5 

247.1 

254.8 

262.3 

1 

269.9 

277.6 


14" STEEL Z-BAR COLUMNS. 

Section : 4 Z-bars 6£" x , 1 web plate 8" x . 2 side plates 14" wide. 


Length of 
Column 
in Feet. 

00 

. 

O' C • 

H.m H 

II cr ro 

O 04 II 

cd 00 ^ 

~ in-- 

^ „.S 

NO) ' S 

COS • w 

X J5 

Tt—-* 

M 

00 

rn . 

o a • 

<N «r- OC 

!l O* ro 

tfl 95 II 

oj o\ 11 
rt d '-7 

ill 

X XI 5 v 
•— 1 

H 

c> . 

0 G • 

(N,„ ro 

II cr co 

V ) T ‘ i| 

<v li 

^ 'i 0 
NN B 

M 

26 and | 
under f 

349-1 

359-6 

370.1 

28 

347-4 

358.3 

369.1 

30 

336-7 

347-2 

357-9 

32 

326,0 

336.3 

. 346.6 

34 

3 x 5-3 

325-2 

335-2 

36 

3 ° 4-5 

3 l 4 - 2 

324.0 

38 

293.8 

303-2 

312.6 

40 

283.1 

292.2 

3 oi -3 

42 

272.3 

281.2 

290.0 

44 

261.6 

270.2 

278.7 

46 

250.9 

259.1 

267 4 

48 

240.2 

248.1 

256.1 

50 

229.5 

237 1 

244.3 


14 x tb Plates - 215.7 
ibs. = 63 4 sq. in. 
r (min.) = 3.74. 

VO 

<N G* * 
N.p in 

II CT rn 

S « II 

flu ...S 
vao S 

X j~, K 

T’—- 

vq 

. 

04 c • 

N VO 

II CT* rn 

s ^11 

x _c k 

to 

rn . 
cn c • 

04 •— Ov 

11 

</] 11 

« 

CL . S 
vt ' B 

X 

in 

Os . 

rn gj . 

01.= 

. 

II cr rn 

S “ ll 

04 ill 

fW C 

380.6 

39 1 • 1 

401.6 

412 . I 

422.6 

380.0 

390.9 

401.6 

412 . I 

422.6 

368.4 

378.9 

389-5 

400.1 

410.7 

356-8 

367-1 

377-3 

387.6 

397-9 

345-2 

355-1 

365-2 

375-2 

385-1 

•' 33-6 

343-3 

353 -o 

362.7 

372.4 

322.0 

331-4 

340.8 

350 2 

359-6 

310.4 

3 x 9-5 

328.6 

337-7 

346.8 

298.8 

307.6 

316.4 

325-2 

334 -o 

287.2 

295-7 

304.2 

312.7 

321.2 

275.6 

283.8 

292. 1 

3 °o -3 

308.5 

264.0 

272.0 

279.8 

287.8 

295-7 

252.4 

260.0 

267.6 

275-3 

283.0 


II cr rh 

CO "* 

Oo C4 II 

c 3 

>1 

xj$ k 


433 1 

433-1 

421.2 

408.2 
395 -i 
382. o 
369.0 
355-9 

342-8 

329.8 

316.7 

303.6 

290.6 



















































COLUMNS . 


43 


SAFE LOADS IN TONS OF 2000 LBS. 

Steel Z-Bar Columns, Square Ends. 

Allowed strains per square inch for steel, safety factor 4 : 
12,000 lbs. for lengths of 90 radii or under. 

17,100-57^ for lengths over 90 radii. 


16" STEEL Z-BAR COLUMNS. 

Section : 4 Z-bars 6 J 4 " X %"- 1 web plate 10" x 1". 2 side plates x6" wide. 



t ^ 

in 

co 

W 

O* 

t^ 

m 

m 

H 


vd . 

ro . 

6 . 

t^* . 

cn . 

d . 

to . 




<N C ~ 
«•= 8, 

m C n 
«•- 8> 

Jf.S d 

m 

^ C J 
cq m 

m 

m c * 

in 

-O C J 
<N-= ” 

*■3 a 


o° c A? 

ci.:: n 

m 


11 cr 1 

II O' 

11 & 4 

II O' 

II O' 'i- 

li cr 6- 

II o' 6- 

II O' 6- 

II o' 6" 

Length of 

75 73 II 

D N 

C/5 1/5 II 
qj II 

75 ^ II 
t>* '• 

C/2 ^ II 
<V t>> 11 

cn ^ II 

D N 11 

cn * |i 

q; t>. •• 

7) W II 
qj to II 

72 5/3 II 
q; to II 

m II 

qj to " 

Column 



« 0 ~ 

60 

4—* . s 

ca 0 • 

15 > 0*0 

15 06 0 

15 do 

15 60 

in Feet. 

— ^ G 

c 

50 ^ C 

— C 

.— ^ c 

— 

;r* ^ G 


*—• 00 c 

11 ■§ 

^ C /2 . 

^ 11 a 

a? .O 
|H cn 

^ n's 

^ 11 a 

M® c 
hH ^ 

^ up 
v* .3 

till 

HH •— 

V-I 

c/3 

^ 11 a 

lOKD w 

rH|H 

* ".I 


X X) ^ 

X JO ^ 

X ,0 ^ 

XJJ >> 

X .O V. 

v n k 

X JO k 

y n k 

x n !< 


vo ~ 

VO 

VO ~ 

VO ^ 

vo ~ 

vo ^ 

VO 

VO ^ 

vc ^ 


M 

M 

M 

H 

M 

M 

M 

M 

M 

32 and j 
under f 

400.1 

412. I 

424.1 

436.1 

448.I 

460.1 

472.1 

484.1 

496.1 

34 

397-7 

409.8 

421.9 

433-9 

446.O 

458.1 

470.2 

482.2 

494.2 

3 6 

387.6 

399-3 

4 II«I 

422.9 

434-7 

446.5 

458.2 

470.0 

481.8 

38 

377-5 

388.9 

400.4 

411.8 

423.4 

434-8 

446.3 

457-9 

469-3 

40 

367-3 

378 5 

389.6 

400.9 

412 1 

423.2 

434-4 

445-6 

456.7 

42 

357-1 

368.0 

378.9 

389.8 

400.7 

411.6 

422.5 

433-4 

444-2 

44 

347 -o 

357-6 

368.2 

378.8 

389-4 

400.0 

410.5 

421.1 

431-7 

46 

336-9 

347-1 

357-4 

367-7 

378.1 

388.4 

398.6 

409.0 

4x9.2 

48 

326.7 

336-7 

346-7 

356.7 

366.7 

376.8 

386.7 

396.7 

406.7 

50 

316.6 

326.3 

336.0 

345-7 

355-4 

365 - 1 

374-8 

384-5 

394-2 


18" STEEL Z-BAR COLUMNS. 

Section : 4 Z-bars x 1 web plate 12" x 1". 2 side plates 18" wide. 


Length of 
Column 
in Feet. 

6 . 

^ c • 

to 

11 cr 4 

<u t-s II 

1*3 

x j§ ^ 

00 —■ 

18 x T 9 g Plates — 248.0 
lbs. = 72.9 sq. in. 
r (min.) = 4.81. 

to 

in . 
m c • 

CN.^ 0 
. O' 

II o' 4 

cn 1/3 11 
<U !M 11 

4J • 

e k ? 

x«| 

72 * W 

X X) k 

00 — 

H 

18 x Plates = 263.0 
lbs. = 77.4 sq. in. 
r (min.) = 4.98. 

18 x % Plates = 271.0 
lbs. = 79.7 sq. in. 
r (min.) = 5.06. 

18 x Plates = 278.6 
lbs. = 81.9 sq. in. 
r (min.) = 5.14. 

m 

vo . 

00 c • 

Ot •— M 

N 

II O' IT) 

S N II 
iS 00 x 

N 35 S 

lis • ~ 

X J t, 

00 — 

O' 

C r , . 

ON C • 

cn .i: vo 
• N 

II cr in 

72 * 

<U ^ ll 

^ II c 

«0|® S 

x £ k 

CO — 

iS x x Plates = 301.6 
lbs. = 88.7 sq. in. 
r (min.) — 5.26. 

34 and I 
under j 

424.1 

437-6 

45 X-I 

464.6 

478.1 

491.6 

505-1 

518.6 

532-1 

36 

419.7 

436.8 

45 i-i 

464.6 

478.1 

491.6 

505-1 

5*8-6 

532-1 

38 

409.4 

426.4 

443-2 

456.2 

476.8 

491.6 

505-1 

518.6 

532-1 

40 

399 - 2 

416.0 

432.7 

449-5 

466.0 

482.6 

499.1 

5 * 4-2 

527-5 

42 

338.9 

405.6 

422.3 

438.8 

455-3 

471-7 

488.x 

503.0 

516.0 

44 

378.7 

395-2 

4”-7 

428.2 

444-5 

460.8 

477.0 

491.8 

504-5 

46 

368.4 

384-9 

401.2 

4 i 7-5 

433-8 

449.9 

466.0 

480.5 

493 -° 

48 

358 .1 

374-5 

39°-7 

406.9 

423.0 

439 -o 

454-9 

469-3 

481.4 

50 

347-9 

364.1 

380.2 

396.2 

412.2 

428.1 

443-9 

458.1 

469.9 




















































44 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


SAFE LOADS IN TONS OF 2000 LBS. 

Steel Z-Bar Columns, Square Ends. 

Allowed strains per square inch for steel, safety factor 4: 

12,000 lbs. for lengths of 90 radii or under. 

17,100-57- for lengths over 90 radii. 

20" STEEL Z-BAR COLUMNS. 

Section: 4 Z-bars 6 J 4 " x 1 web plate 14" x . Side plates 20" wide. 


2 Side Plates. 

4 Side Plates. 


O' 


t!- 



Tf* 


O' 



O' 


O' 


4 _! 


PO * . 

* • 


6 


06 

* 


in . 


04* • 


0 G 

4 

04 

m co 

S.H 

CO 

O' 

co 

m d 

4 

S.ss> 

■'t* G 
CO ‘~ 

m 

m 

0 

CO ,mm VO 

s ^ 

cO ‘~ VO 

CN 

m ^ vo 


11 g* 

VO 

i| 6 * ^ 

cr .1 

II ^ 

H c/5 

m 

11 cr 

in 

11 

11 Sf 

m 

|i d* 

11 sr;? 

|| d* A 

C/5 

Length of 

S *7 

II 

8 «. !! 

C/5 

S 4 

11 

c n m 
2 « 

1! 

—N 

Cfi w 
<U ^ 11 

in 

11 

—N 

£ q I! 

8 « II 

8 

Column 

rt oo 

c 

dS S-c 

rt O' 

d 

03 

d 

rt On 

rt 0 

c 

-2 = 

dS o' B 

dS S'e 

in Feet. 

^ II 

35 oi 

a 

* 11 a 

U5|CD . O 

h|h C /5 

£ ir 

a 

Ch w 

%\\ J, 

* m'e 
3T.f- 

Ph ” 

■R» 

a 

1! 


PU m -2 

SQ0 II w 


X ;£ 

0 


X £ K 

0 

0 ^ 

04 


x£ 



x£ 


x£ 









04 


04 

8 


8 

8 

8 

38 and ) 
under J 

538 

I 

553- 1 

568 

1 

583 

I 

598.1 

613 

. 1 

628.1 

643- 1 

658.1 

40 

532 

•9 

55r-i 

568 

I 

583 

I 

M 

00 

O' 

m 

613 

. I 

628. i 

643.1 

658.1 

42 

521 

.2 

539-2 

557 

2 

574 

•5 

59 1 -9 

609 

.0 

626.4 

643.1 

658.1 

44 

509 

• 5 

527-3 

545 

•3 

562 

3 

579-4 

596 

•5 

613-7 

630.7 

648. o- 

46 

497 

•7 

5*5-5 

533 

•3 

550 

1 

567.0 

5«3 

.8 

600.9 

617.8 

634.8 

48 

486 

. I 

503-6 

521 

.2 

538 

.0 

554-6 

571 

.2 

588.1 

604.8 

621.6 

50 

474 

• 4 

49 1 -8 

509 

.2 

525 

7 

542.2 

558 

.6 

575-2 

591-8 

608.4 


20" STEEL Z-BAR COLUMNS. 

Section : 4 Z-bars 6 %" x 1 web plate 14" x 1 ". 4 side plates 20" wide. 



m 

0 

m 

0 

m 

0 

m 

0 

m 


M , 

q » 

co. 

t> » 

in . 

4 • 

04* . 

CO r* 

M . 

d> . 


4 



2- G • 

4 £ • 

^ 04 

4 G • 

?.s • 

m 



11 

II d* 

II cr“ 

u 

!l 

11 v"? 

II cr^; 

II cr^ 

11 

Length of 

05 X 

K W . II 

05 * ^ 

a *711 

05 w ^ 

2 11 

05 1/5 10 

- 

in ' Ji 

2 5 11 

m" Ui 

2 ^11 

05 1/5 ^ 

a N . II 

05 0> 1/1 

« *7 II 

^ C/5 ^ 

<U 04 || 

Column 

rt 2 — 


dS « - 

dS M - 

dS So 

dS N -7 

dS S'- 

dS g- 

dS s,— 

in Feet. 

Cu M d 

Pm ~ d 

O, H c 

Ph h C 

Ph M C 

Ph - C 

PU - c 

0. H C 

Ph w C 


*■5 l! . S 

M d'T' 

X JD ^ 

^l 11 6 

X jS k 

®!2 11 6 

M in , 

X JO ^ 

35 " § 

H 05 

X J3 iv 

hko II a 
hH . 

H 05 

X J 2 

M C/5 . 

X -O ^ 

two II g 

O) , 

X £> *• 

35 ".I 

M C/5 

X JO ^ 

*O!C0 11 g . 

X X) ^ 




o~" 

O ^ 

0~ 

0" 

o~ 

O 

O ^ 


04 

04 

01 

04 

04 

04 

04 

04 

04 

42 and | 
under f 

673 - 1 

688.1 

703.1 

718.1 

733 1 

748.1 

763-1 

M 

CO 

793 -i 

44 

665.0 

682.5 

699.7 

717.0 

733 • 1 

748.1 

763-1 

778.1 

793- 11 

46 

651-7 

668.8 

686.0 

703-1 

720.2 

735-6 

750.2 

764.7 

779-3 

48 

638.4 

655-3 

672.2 

689.2 

706.1 

721.2 

735-5 

749.8 

764.1 

50 

625.0 

641.7 

658.4 

675-3' 

692.0 

. 706.8 

720.8 

734-8 

748.8 
















































COLUMNS. 


45 


SAFE LOADS IN TONS OF 2000 LBS. 

Steel Z-Bar Columns, Square Ends. 

Allowed strains per square inch for steel, safety factor 4: 
12,000 lbs. for lengths of 90 radii or under. 

17,^00-57- for lengths over 90 radii. 


20" STEEL Z-BAR COLUMNS. 

Section : 4 Z-bars 6J4" x 1 web plate 14" x 1". 6 side plates 20" wide. 


Length of 
Column 
in Feet. 

q 

^ O' 

|| 

^ 11 

55 

JS Z-C 

Cl, h -2 

«II s 

X M V 

o£ 

01 

in 

S g cS 

O' 

il 

w 11 

55 «. 11 

JS ^3 

j® 11 -S- 
w c/5 V. 
x£ 

0 

N 

q 

—.5 « 

'T 0\ 

|| & >0 

55 ‘r 11 

Sin 

Cl C/3 ^ 

x£ 

0 

Cl 

in 

<n • . 

00 2 w 

^ O' 

II CT-'O 

1/3 11 
w .. 

JJ N 

*!clo 
JS Je 
a, •= 

11 -S 

M C/3 k 
xXI 

0 

w 

q 

ei • 

2.S m 
^ . o> 
il a* 10 

55 -'I 

m 

^ !, . r 

x£ 

O 

w 

in 

8 c „• 

^ O' 

|| a* >0 

55 « 11 

t{ 

JES ^ c 

* I a 

«G. W 

M C/3 k 

*£ 

0 

Cl 

q 

d- x . 
Sc M 

*0 O' 

|l u* in 

' w n 
a) ^ 
a; ^ * 
tJ O'- 

JS ^ G 

iii I 

eo\ . , 

Cl C/) ^ 

0 

N 

20x2/5 Plates = 5x7.5 

lbs. = 152.2 sq. in. 

r (min.) = 5.91. 

0 

'G • . 

m c d 

1/3 . S' 

|| a* *0 
tn n 

55 -ll 

JS ^ a 

S’lf 

0 

N 

44 and I 
under j 

46 

48 

5 ° 

808.1 

793-7 

778.2 
762.6 

823.I 

808 3 

792-5 

776.7 

838.1 

823.0 

806.9 

790.8 

853-1 

837-5 

821.2 

804.7 

868.x 

852.x 

835-5 

818.7 

883.1 

866.7 

849.7 

832.8 

898.1 

881.2 

864.0 

846.7 

9 ^ 3-1 

895.8 

878.3 

860.7 

928.1 

910.4 

892.6 

874.7 


20" STEEL Z-BAR COLUMNS. 

Section : 4 Z-bars 6 J 4 " x 1 web plate 14" x 1". 6 side plates 20" wide. 


Length of 
Column 
in Feet. 

in 

•4- • 

CO c 

" v - d 

11 cr£ 

a !5 11 
js fc- 

Ph m c 

•es 11 a 

N C/5, 

X X3 V. 

o~ 

Cl 

q 

CO . 

'*■ C 
*'> - 0 
!l 

</= w 10 
« *M 

O' _ 

Ph M c 

3$ 11 a 

N toV 

X X2 

8~ 

in 

M a 

in c 

'°‘ 5 a, 

il 

c* tn 10 

a n . 11 

J«vO~ 

Pi - c 
i» II '3 

ill K 

N c/3 

XXI 

o’ - ' 

M 

q 

v2 3 
*°- 5 d 

II 

c /3 05 ^ 

- 

JS VO 

PU M C 

<" 03 Y 

X JD ^ 

0 ^ 
w 

xn 

CO . 

VO c 

II ^ 

eo M * 

a «. 11 

dS vO*'—- 

Ph m e' 

«no II a 

in . ‘r, 

« cn 

X X3 *• 
O'" 

N 

q 

ct . 

— G 

O' 

11 ** 

« w *° 

<u — 

JS VO-^ 

Ph m C 

^"1 
«oi: 

X X3 ^ 

N 

in 

in . 

00 c 

" O' 

« 

to 03 10 

£ « II 

JS So 

Ph m .C 

«» 11 3 

XX) ^ 

0” 

N 

0 . 

4.2 . 

O' O' 

m • co 

II of >d 

cn *MI 

<U 

CTj C 

Ph II g 

O'- 

Cl 

42 and / 
under f 

943-1 

958.1 

973 - 1 

988.1 

1003. I 

IOl8.I 

1033. I 

1048.1 

44 

943 - 1 

958.1 

973 -Q 

987.8 

1002 . 5 

1017.5 

1032 . 3 

1047-3 

46 

925.0 

939-6 

954-2 

968.8 

983-3 

997-7 

1012.3 

1026.8 

48 

966.9 

921 . I 

935 4 

949.6 

963-9 

978.1 

992-3 

1006.5 

50 

888.7 

902.6 

916.6 

930.5 

944-5 

958-4 

972.4 

986.1 












































46 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


Phoenix Columns. —To determine the value of Phoenix 
•columns under loads, from tests, the following formula has 
been adopted: 

P 42,000 

s" = r * 

1 H-? 

1 50,000^ 


P total load in pounds 

The expression -~r represents the —- -r - :-.—r — ; 

r .S r sectional area in square inches 

or, in other words, the crushing strain per square inch of sec¬ 
tion ; l is the length in feet between bearings, and r is the 
least radius of gyration. 

Applying the above formula to the several patterns of seg¬ 
mental columns, the table of allowable working strains per 
square inch of section has been prepared ; the allowable work¬ 
ing strains being in each case about one fourth of the ultimate 
strength of the column. 


SAFE LOADS FOR PHCENIX COLUMNS, IN POUNDS PER SQUARE 
INCH OF SECTIONAL AREA. 


Square-end Bearings. 


Length in 
Feet. 

Col. A . 

Col. BK 

Col. B 2. 

Col. C . 

Col. E . 

Col. G . 

10 

9,323 

9, 8 33 

10,024 

10,195 

10,351 

10,411 

12 

8,885 

9,564 

9,830 

10,067 

io,2 S8 

10,371 

14 

8,420 

9,267 

9,607 

9,924 

10,215 

10,326 

16 

7,943 

8,944 

9,364 

9,783 

10,131 

10,275 

18 

7,463 

8 ,6lO 

9.105 

9,575 

10,037 

10,216 

20 

6,997 

8,260 

8,830 

9,386 

9,935 

10,152 

22 

6,526 

7,906 

8,541 

9,185 

9,824 

10,082 

24 

6,090 

7,550 

8,250 

8,973 

9,705 

10,005 

26 


7,201 

7,955 

8,755 

9 , 58 o 

9,926 

28 


6,860 

7,660 

8,527 

9,450 

9,841 

30 


6,527 

7,366 

8,297 

9 , 3 M 

9,750 

32 



7,075 

8,070 

9,170 

9,654 

34 

. 



7,837 

9,021 

9,555 

36 

. 



7,604 

8,870 

9 , 44 i 

38 




7,375 

8,717 

9 , 34 i 

40 




7,147 

8,561 

9,235 
































COLUMNS. 


47 


TABLE OF DIMENSIONS OF PHCENIX COLUMNS. 

The dimensions given in the following table are subject 
to slight variations, which are unavoidable in rolling iron 
shapes. 

The weights of columns given are those of the 4, 6, or 8 
segments of which they are composed. The shanks of the 
rivets used in joining the segments together only make up the 
quantity of metal removed in making the holes, but the rivet- 
heads add from 2 to 5 per cent to the weights given. The 
rivets are spaced 3, 4, or 6 inches apart from centre to centre, 
and somewhat more closely at the ends than toward the centre 
of the column. 

Any desired thickness between the minimum and maximum 
for any given size can be furnished. G columns have 8 seg¬ 
ments, E columns 6 segments, C, B\ B\ and A have 4 segments. 


I.east radius of gyration equals D X .3636. 


One Segment. 

Diameters in Inches. 

One Column. 

Size of 
Rivets. 

Thick¬ 
ness in 
Inches. 

Weight 
in Lbs. 
per 

Yard. 

d 

Inside. 

D 

Outside. 

Over 

Flanges. 

Area of 
Cross- 
section. 
Sq. In. 

Weight 
per Foot 
in 

Pounds. 

Least 
Radius of 
Gyration 
in Ins. 

IB 

9l 


f 

4 

61V 

3-8 

12.6 

t-45 

£X 1* 

1 

12 

? J 

4l 

6i 3 b 

4-8 

16.0 

1.50 

il 

TB 

14I 

1 1 

C 1 

4t 

6i 5 b 

S-8 

19-3 

i-5S 

tf 

t 

17 


l 

4f 

6/b 

6.8 

22.6 

t-59 

il 

i 

16 


r 

5t s s 

8rB 

6.4 

21.3 

1.92 

IX if 

i 5 s 

igi 



5/b 

81 

7.8 

26.0 

1.96 

if 

£ 

23 

C9K0 


5i 9 b 

81 

9.2 

30.6 

2.02 

if 

7 

Iff 

26I 

J 1 


Stb 

8f 

10.6 

35-3 

2.07 

il 

1 

30 

P 


511 

8 IB 

12.0 

40.0 

2.11 

1 1 

T8 

33l 



sli 

81 

13-4 

44.6 

2.16 

2 

£ 

37 


L 

^TB 

8£ 

14.8 

49-3 

2.20 

2I 

X 

18I 

1 

r 

6/b 

9 i 

7-4 

24.6 

2-34 

IX if 

k 

22 £ 



6 t 9 b 

9l 

9.0 

3 °.° 

2-39 

11 

f 

26* 

10 ICO 

H|H 

IT) 


61b 

9 tb 

10.6 

35-3 

2.43 

if 

t t b 

3<>1 

J 1 


m 

9t 

12.2 

40.6 

2.48 

il 

1 

34l 

h 


611 

91 

13.8 

46.0 

2.52 

il 

i 9 s 

38 * 



7 iV 

9 f 

I S -4 

St -3 

2.57 

2 

£ 

42 * 



7t% 

9 1b 

17.0 

56.6 

2.61 

2I 



























48 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


Least radius of gyration equals D X .3636— {continued). 


One Segment. 

Diameters in Inches. 

One Column. 

Size of 
Rivets. 

Thick¬ 
ness in 
Inches. 

Weight 
in Lbs. 

per 

Yard. 

d 

Inside. 

D 

Outside. 

Over 

Flanges. 

Area of 
Cross- 
section. 
Sq. In. 

Weight 
per Foot 
in 

Pounds. 

Least 
Radius ol 
Gyration 
in Ins. 

i 

25 



7 ib 

hi 9 b 

IO.O 

33-3 

2.80 

f X if 

IB 

30 



71 b 

uf 

12.0 

40.0 

2.85 

2 

* 

35 



7 is 

“IB 

14.0 

46.6 

2.90 

2f 

IS 

40 



8 is 

Uf 

16.0 

53-3 

2.94 

2 f 

i 

45 



8 ft 

nie 

18.0 

60.0 

2.98 

2f 

t 9 s 

48 



8i 5 b 

uf 

19.2 

64.0 

3-°3 

2 f 

f 

53 

I 


8/b 

12 

21.2 

70.6 

3.08 

2f 

18 

58 

0 


8i 9 b 

I2lB 

23.2 

77-3 

3-12 

3X2$ 

i 

63 



81 b 

“ft 

25 2 

84.0 

3.16 

2f 

11 

68 



81 b 

I2i 6 B 

27.2 

90.6 

3.21 

2f 

£ 

73 



811 

1215 

29.2 

97-3 

3.26 

3 

1 

83 



9 i 3 g 

I2tB 

33-2 

no.6 

3-34 

2f 

if 

93 



9 i 7 b 

I 3 f 

37-2 

124.0 

3-43 

2f 

if 

103 



9 ib 

12 1b 

41.2 

137-3 

3-52 

3 

i 

28 


r 

nf 

i 5 tb 

16.8 

56 

4.18 

f X 2 

i 6 b 

32 



nf 

j 5 i 9 b 

19.2 

64 

4-23 

2 f 

t 

36 



nj 

I 5 ib 

21.6 

72 

4.28 

2 f 

7 

40 



nf 

isie 

24.0 

80 

4-32 

2f 

f 

44 



12 

15! 

26.4 

88 

4-36 

2 f 

1% 

48 

M 


I2f 

16 

28.8 

96 

4.40 

2 f 

1 

53 

M 

| 

- 

I2f 

167 b 

31-8 

106 

4-45 

2 f 

IB 

58 

u 

I 2 f 

161% 

34-8 

Il6 

4-50 

f X 2* 

i 

63 



I2f 

16ft 

37-8 

126 

4-55 

2 f 

11 

68 



I2f 

i6/ s 

40.8 

136 

4.60 

2 f 

i 

73 



I2f 

16$ 

43-8 

146 

4.64 

2 f 

1 

83 



.13 

i6| 

49.8 

166 

4 73 

2 f 

if 

93 



I 3 l 

17 

55-8 

186 

4.82 

3 

if 

103 



I 3 f 

i 7 ib 

61.8 

206 

4.91 

3 f 

5 

TS 

30 


r 

15 

i 9 f 

24 

80.0 

5-45 

f X 2 

H 

8 

35 



i 5 i 

i 9 f 

28 

93-3 

5 - 5 ° 

2 

IB 

40 



15I 

19I 

32 

106.6 

5-55 

2 f 


45 



I5f 

i 9 tb 

36 

120.0 

5-59 

2f 

i 9 b 

50 



i 5 f 

i 9 f 

40 

133-3 

5 63 

2 f 

f 

55 

octo 


i 5 f 

i 9 f 

44 

146.6 

5-68 

2 f 

1b 

60 

w 

■ 

15! 

i 9 f 

48 

160.0 

5-72 

f X 2| 

1 

65 

O 


i 5 f 

i 9 f 

52 

173-3 

5-77 

2 f 

li 

70 



16 

20 

56 

186.6 

5-82 

2f 

£ 

75 



i 6 f 

20f 

60 

200.0 

5-87 

2 f 

I 

85 



edf> 

VO 

n 

20 f 

68 

226.6 

5-95 

3 

if 

95 



i6f 

20f 

76 

253-3 

6.04 

3 f 

if 

105 



i6£ 

2of 

84 

280.0 

6.14 

3* 

if 

1 1-5 


l 

i 7 f 

21 

92 

306.6 

6.23 

3 f 






































































CHAPTER III. 


COLUMN CONNECTIONS. 


Column Connections. —It was previously mentioned that 
the advantages of different shape columns for connections 



-with the floor girders, wall girders, and with each other per¬ 
form an important part in their selection ; in fact, it is so 

49 
























































































5o 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


important that the entire strength and rigidity of the struct¬ 
ure depends upon these connections. 

Cast-iron columns with wooden girders, as in Fig. 31, were 
used extensively at first for the interior columns of buildings; 
in fact, are used to a considerable extent at the present time. 

By glancing at the details it will be seen that bolts or 
rivets are not used in any manner whatever, and the equi¬ 
librium depends solely upon the wooden girders and imposed 
weight holding the entire connection in place, and, as one. 
writer has stated, “ much the same as a child would pile blocks 
up and steady the pile with its hands.” Then again the col¬ 
umns are also connected to each other in the same style of 
construction by flanges as shown in Fig. 32. 

In the first detail the pintle A is cast as a part of the upper 
columns, and the shape as shown. In the second, the lower 
column remains the same diameter, and the wooden girders 
are cut to fit the shape of the column. The columns are 



secured to each other by bolts through their flanges, and the 
wooden girders are secured by straps placed each side, as 
shown in the detail. 

The change from wooden floor beams and girders to iron 




































COLUMN CONNECTIONS. 


5 ® 

and steel brought about some alterations in the general details 
of the columns, which is shown in Fig. 33. Iron beams were. 



placed side by side, as shown at B f in place of the wooden 
girders; then secured to the column by bolts to cast-iron lugs, 
forming at the same time a separator in the girder. 

These separators were made in two ways—one cast solid, 
as at B, the other as shown at A, Fig. 3, and the girders rest 
upon brackets cast with the column. The floor beams are se¬ 
cured to the columns by bolts in the same manner as the girders. 












































































52 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 

and also rest upon brackets. The lugs and brackets are cast 
about the same thickness as the column, and project 5 or 6 
inches from the body. This later detail, Fig. 33, is generally 
adopted as the connections for all interior cast-iron columns, 
and the joints, if covered by a cast-iron base, can be at any 
distance above the floor beams. 

Cast-iron Column Connections in the Skeleton Frame. 
—In changing from the ordinary method of building to the 
skeleton frame, the joints of the columns were altered some¬ 
what, and the beams and girders when cast-iron columns are 
used should be secured by wrought-iron knees and bolts, as 
shown at Fig. 34. The columns were also changed from 



Fig. 34. 

circular to square to allow the masonry to fit square with the 
column. This form provides a simpler connection for the 


























































































































COLUMN CONNECTIONS. 


53 


cut tain wall and floor girders than the circular shape. The 
flanges of the joint are reinforced by small brackets, as 
shown. 

The curtain-wall girders are secured to the side cf the col¬ 
umn by knees and bolts, and further secured by straps placed 
at the back and extending to the girders on the opposite 
side. 

This system of bolting the floor girders to the cast-iron 
columns is to be preferred to that of depending upon lugs cast 
with the column, as in Fig. 33, for the reason that any number 
of bolts can be placed in the head to make a rigid connection 
when the joint especially is above the girders. 

The same system could be used for the curtain-wall girders; 
and instead of using those made up of beam sections, plate or 
lattice girders could be adopted. 

The weakest point of the connection is at the joint of the 
column, and depends solely upon the strength of the bolts in 
the flanges. 

Z-bar Column Connections. —A material change has 
been effected from cast-iron columns to those made up of 
rolled shapes. In these rolled material columns numerous 
sections are formed by riveting together angles, plates, 
channels, I-beams, Z-shapes, etc., or of some patented shape 
which form segments of a circular section such as herein de¬ 
scribed ; and, as previously mentioned, the requirement is 
that the column used shall be well adapted for connection. 

It is well known that metal near the neutral axis of a 
column is not of much value, and that a proper disposition of 
metal farthest from the neutral axis is best effected in the 
cylindrical section. Therefore, the unit strength of this sec¬ 
tion is somewhat greater in long columns than that of others. 
For proportion of length to diameter, which occurs in the ma¬ 
jority of buildings, there is little or no difference in strength 
among the various sections as mentioned above. 

To overcome the bending tendency of the column caused 


54 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


by eccentric loading, the floor and wall girders should be ap¬ 
plied as close as possible to the neutral axis. 

The advocates of the Z-bar column, a section made up of 
four Z-bars and a plate, as shown in Fig. 35, claim that it is 



probably the best section which meets the general require-, 
ments for the construction of buildings. 

This section, they claim, combines a minimum of shop^ 
work with good adaptation for connection and accessibility of 
all its surfaces. The sketch shows a single beam entering 
between the Z-bars almost to the very centre of the column,, 
and secured by rivets through the top and bottom flanges;, 
it also rests upon a heavy bracket made up of angles and 
riveted to the outer legs of the Z-bars. 

A beam can also be placed between the legs of the Z-bars 
at right angles to the one that is shown, and supported upon 
brackets riveted to the middle web of the Z-bars. 

The connection of one column to another is not shown in 





















































































COLUMN CONNECTIONS. 55 

this figure, but is shown better in Fig. 36. The columns are 
separated by a plate made of various thicknesses, depending 
in a great measure upon the load transmitted to the column 
from the floor girders. The curtain-wall girders are placed 
higher than the bottom of the latter and rest upon cast-iron 
blocks as at A, which are secured to the plate by bolts passing 



through the flange of the beams, then through the cast blocks 
and through the plate. Stiffness and strength is given to the 
plate under this girder by angle brackets riveted to the body 
of the column, as at B. The plate is also reinforced under the 
floor girder by angle-knees, which also serve to join the col¬ 
umns together, with rivets passing through this lower and 
upper knee, as at D. The columns are again stiffened at the 
back by a splice plate, riveted by any number of rivets, and 
shown at E. 

















































56 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS . 


The dotted line C represents the party wall of the building. 
If this connection is to be used on the inner columns of a build¬ 
ing, the plates between the columns will extend to receive a 
beam or girder on the opposite side; then the splice plate is 
not required. 

When the Z-bar column stands clear of any wall, and is 
placed to carry beams and girders at right angles to each 
other, being open on four sides, so that every beam or girder 
may enter between the flanges, a stiffer connection could not 
be desired. In fact, the entire load is concentrated near the 
centre, and every gain in this direction adds greatly to the 
efficiency of the column ; and one in which a one-sided load 
can be applied close to the axis is good for a much greater 
unit strain than where the application must be made farther 
from the centre. 

The joint of these Z-bar columns is frequently made at 
the top of the girders, a plate also being used to make the 
separation ; then heavy brackets are riveted to the body of the 
column, as shown at B, to support all beams and girders. 

Phoenix Column Connections.—The makers of the 
Phoenix column claim, among the many advantages of that 
section, that the means for applying the loads closely to the 
axis of the column is an advantage which places it among the 
many desirable sections to use. 

For instance, if the load is applied to the shell of the 
column at one side, this load travels around the column and 
downward, at an angle of about 45 0 , so that, at a distance 
below the load equal to the diameter of the column, the whole 
column will receive an equal load on all parts. 

There are several methods of making connection to the 
flanges. In some cases, where filler bars are used between the 
flanges, the load can be transmitted directly to the opposite 
flange by means of a gusset plate, or the filler bars can be 
forged out to form a connection. In a four-segment column 


COLUMN CONNECTIONS. 


57 


four loads can be applied at the four connecting flanges, in a 
six-segment column six, an eight-segment column eight. 

In order to make a desirable 
connection to any column, the 
bracket holes must fit the holes 
in the column exactly, and the 
rivets must completely fill the holes. 

To carry any great load, the brackets 
must necessarily extend a great 
distance below the seat in order 
to get enough rivets in to take the 
shear . This is not the case with 
the filler-bar, it extends the full 
height of column. 

In Fig. 37 it will be noticed 
that the cross-pintle extends to B y 
or is simply a continuation of the 
web of the floor girder carried clear 
through the column, distributing 
the load to all parts of the column, 
and overcoming in a great measure the tendency of eccentric 
loading. 

The wall girders are carried in the same manner and 
riveted to the pintles shown in plan view. Those which carry 
the wall girders are riveted to the floor-girder pintle by angles 
the full height of the pintles. 

The joint of the columns is at C, plates between being 
dispensed with. By means of these cross-pintles it is possible 
to make a continuous column from cellar to roof in which the 
joints are actually stronger than the body of the column. 

By referring to the detail (Fig. 37) it will be noticed that 
the wall girder is composed of angles and plates similar in 
construction to the floor girder; an angle is riveted to the side 
level with the bottom of the floor beam. This is to receive 
the floor arch. A plate D is also riveted to the bottom of the 



Fig. 37. 




































58 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


girder, so that the curtain wall may be supported at each story. 

The entire distance from the 
party line E to the inside angle 
of girder being equal to 12 
inches, is supported upon a plate 
II inches wide, if the wall is 16 
inches the plate is increased in 
width and the girders in section¬ 
al area. These plates are gener¬ 
ally f of an inch thick and 
riveted to the angles with 
rivets about 6 inches centres. 
This section of wall girder may 
be applied to any column or 
number of columns; in fact, 
the plate girder and lattice 
girder seem to be the best sec¬ 
tion that could be used. The 
lattice section is so arranged 
that the wall is built enclosing it 
completely. Angles are also 
riveted to the latticing to receive 
the floor arches. 

Connections of Column 
Sections Made up of Angles 
and Plates. —Girders of built 
^ IG * 38. sections of plate and angles 

make more efficient connection than those made up of rolled 
beams. Columns built of the same sections are more readily 
joined together at the floor levels, and with each other than 
any other form, they give a great amount of rigidity, and are 
recommended to be used, especially when the arrangement of 
the doors and other openings which occur in the partitions 
and outer walls are such that it would be impossible to devise 
a system tif lateral bracing. The stiffness of the individual 















































COLUMN CONNECTIONS. 


59 


column in a skeleton-framed structure—or in any building 
construction—is an element of resistance of considerable value 
if the connections are rigid. If it is impossible to apply lateral 
bracing to the frame work, the columns should be joined to¬ 
gether by complete splice plates on all sides that have no beam 
or girders connected ; these splice-plates could be used to ad¬ 
vantage between the columns and the girders. 

An ideal column, therefore, is one in which each column is a 
unit throughout the entire height of the building, which condi¬ 
tion is possible when they are made up as shown in Figs. 36 to 40. 

A considerable degree of security against injury from any 
cause to which buildings are subjected can be obtained when 
the columns are constructed in this manner; in fact, thi joints 
at the floor level are stronger 
than the body of the column. 

Columns constructed as 
shown in Figs. 36 to 40 can be 
made to any practical length, 
some of which are further illus¬ 
trated, where the same section 
is carried through three stories 
making the columns nearly 40 
feet in length. 

Where, so much depends 
upon the columns as in the skel¬ 
eton frame, every precaution 
against accidents should be taken. 

The rolled iron and steel, 
before the members are riveted 
together, should have these 
members inspected singly, for 
the quality of the material and 
for surface, and then the finished 
column inspected for workman¬ 
ship ; this offers a guaranty against any serious failure. 
























































6o 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


The connection shown at Fig. 38, of the box column made 
up of two webs, two cover plates, and joined together by angles, 
may be applied to single web, Z-bar, or any rectangular sec¬ 
tions. 

In joining the upper and lower columns, they are first 
separated by the plate B, angle-knees being riveted top and 
bottom, through which holes for bolts or rivets are punched. 
An angle-knee is also placed on the inside face over the floor 



k 



Fig. 40. 

rating the upper and lower column 


girder. At the back a 
splice plate C y the full 
width of the covers, is 
placed, extending at least 
2 feet from the joint. 
When the work is riveted 
a stiff and rigid joint is* 
secured. 

This same connection 
may be improved upon in 
the manner shown by Fig. 
39. When the column 
sections are decreased at 
certain floor levels a filler 
plate will be required, as 
shown at C. The joint of 
the column is more rigid 
in this connection, but to 
prevent any lateral dis¬ 
placement of the floor 
girders and columns the 
knee-braces are preferred. 
When high and narrow 
buildings are designed the 
ideal joint is that shown 
at Fig. 40, the plate sepa- 
being placed at the centre 






















































































COLUMN CONNECTIONS. 


61 


of floor girder; the knee-brace A placed at the ceiling and the 
brace B at the floor level. 

The curtain-wall girder, if made of I-beams, will be level with 
the bottom of floor beam D\ if made of a plate or latticing 
it can be secured to the lower and upper column much the 
same as shown in Fig. 39, a portion of the girder being cut 
out to pass the connection plate. 

The position of the columns in the building using such 
joints will be determined in a great measure by the partitions, 
then the knee-braces will not be seen. If such is impossible, 
the floor brace B may be dispensed with, and the inside splice 
plate, as shown in Fig. 39, be adopted. 

All connections as described are to be riveted at the works 
and building with hot wrought iron or wrought steel rivets, 
thus insuring more rigidity against wind pressure than can be 
obtained with bolt connections. 

Rivet Spacing in Column Joints. —The rivet spacing in 
all the above details is determined by certain fixed laws. 
The rivets connecting the girders with the columns depend 
upon the load to be supported. For example, if there is 27 
tons (54,000 lbs.) to be supported at one end of a floor girder 
and diameter rivets are used,—the shearing strain being 
measured on the area of the cross-section and allowing 7500 
pounds for wrought iron and steel rivets,—the area of a rivet § 
of an inch in diameter is 0.6013 square inches. This multiplied 
by 7500 pounds, the safe shearing, = 4510 pounds, the safe 
amount of strain each rivet can sustain without shearing; 
dividing 5400 by this we get 12 rivets to support the girder. 

If knee-braces are used, a portion of these 12 rivets can be 
counted in as those supporting the girder. 

The rivets in the column are generally spaced closer at 
the joints, say 3 inches for f", and 4 inches for £" diameter 
rivets; for the body of the column they should be spaced at a 
maximum of 6 inches. 

If there is more than one cover plate over thick each. 


62 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


in diameter rivets should be used ; less than that, use f" 
rivets. If the thickness of plates and angles equals 3 inches, 
use 1" diameter rivets. 

The rivets in the splice plates are determined by those in 
the column; in the knee-braces by the girder and column 
rivets. 

The rivets connecting the angle-knees of the top and 
bottom column through the joint plate are of the same diam¬ 
eter as the rest of the lower column. 


CHAPTER IV. 


FLOOR LOADS AND FLOOR FRAMING.. 

EQUALLY important in the construction of the skeleton 
frame as the columns and column connections is the arrange¬ 
ment of the floor beams and floor girders. 

Very many mistakes are undoubtedly due to errors in the 
calculation of the floor loads. 

The arrangements must be such that the material is used 
in the most economical manner; every member must be calcu¬ 
lated. There must be sufficient material, no more nor less ; for 
it is essential not only from economy, but also to reduce the 
weights of the dead loads on the foundations, and the construc¬ 
tion should be as light as consistent with perfect stability. 

Dead Loads. —All materials used as a part of the construc¬ 
tion of the building are rated as dead loads; that is, the floor- 
beams, girders, arches, columns, walls, flooring, water in tanks, 
machinery, partitions, plastering, and anything actually a part 
of the building. 

Live Loads. —The weight of persons, office furniture, or 
stores of any kind that can be moved or changed are Usually 
classed as live loads. 

For such weights as is usual to apply to the floors, the 
New York Building Law of 1892 is a good guide to follow: 
“SEC. 483. In every building used as a dwelling-house, tenement- 
house, apartment-house, or hotel, each floor shall be of sufficient 
strength in all its parts to bear safely, upon every superficial foot 
of its surface, 70 pounds; and if to be used for office purposes 

63 


6 4 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 

not less than ioo pounds upon every superficial foot; if to be 
used as a place of public assembly, 120 pounds; and if used as 
a store, factory, warehouse, or for any other manufacturing or 
commercial purpose, 150 pounds and upward upon every super¬ 
ficial foot; and every floor shall be of sufficient strength to bear 
the weight to be imposed thereon in addition to the weight of 
the materials of which the floor is composed. The roofs of all 
buildings shall be proportioned to bear safely 50 pounds upon 
every superficial foot of their surface, in addition to the weight 
of materials composing the same.” 

In several buildings used as offices the author has calculated 
the dead loads, and found the average weight to be 100 pounds 
per square foot. This included the terra-cotta arches eight 
inches in depth, sleepers, wooden floors, beams, girders, parti¬ 
tions, and plastering on partitions and ceiling ; the last two 
items being actually calculated, and then rated so much per 
square foot of floor surface. 

The usual practice in New York is to make the upper floors 
of office buildings carry the minimum weight, 70 or 75 pounds, 
as required by the New York Building Law, and then increase 
the weight upon the lower floors, say from 75 pounds; for all 
stories above the third, to 150 pounds upon the first story and 
basement. 

One 12-story skeleton-constructed building in particular in 
New York the live load upon every floor excepting the roof 
has a calculated area of 350 pounds per square foot. The 
building is used as a printing establishment; it is therefore 
likely that every floor, or portion, will at some time or other 
be loaded to that extent. The greatest weight, according to 
the dead and live load supported by the lower columns, is 
800 tons. 

Chicago’s Practice Relating to the Calculations of the 
Dead and Live Load upon the Floors. —It seems to be the 

practice in Chicago’s high buildings, in regard to the floor 
loads, to calculate all the beams for the total dead and live 


FLOOR LOADS AND FLOOR FRAMING. 


65 


loads, while the girders are required to carry the dead load 
and about 80 per cent, of the live load, and the columns the 
dead load and half, or even less, of the live load. 

This practice is based on the theory that it is quite possible 
the beams will some time have to carry all the live load, while 
the chances are increasingly less that the girders and columns 
will ever be required to do so. 

Take, for example, the Venetian Building, Chicago. The 
dead weight on the office floors is 100 pounds per square foot; 
the live loads on the floors above the fourth is taken at 35 
pounds per square foot. On the second, third, and fourth 
floors it is taken at 60 pounds, and on the first floor at 80 
pounds. The whole of the dead load and about one half the 
live load is carried to the columns. The building is 12 stories, 
the greatest load on the lower columns being about 327 tons. 

The Fair Building, Chicago, is 16 stories in height, and the 
beams above the fifth story are calculated to carry 75 pounds 
per square foot of live load, the fifth story 130 pounds, the 
fourth 200 pounds, and all below the fourth, including the first 
story, 130 pounds. 

The floor beams are calculated to carry all the dead load 
plus the full amount of the live load designated as the maxi¬ 
mum for said story. 

The girders are calculated to carry all the dead load plus 
90 per cent, of the live load designated for said story. 

The columns are calculated to carry all the dead loads plus 
45 per cent, of the live load on first story, and increases on each 
story, from that to the sixteenth story, where it is 90 per cent. 
—an average of about 64 per cent, throughout the building. 

It would be good practice and within the limit of safety to 
have for each story : 

The beams sustain dead load + live load. 

girders “ “ “ + 85 per cent, of live load, 

columns « “ “ +75 “ “ “ “ 


66 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


Floor Framing. —In designing the floor framing of a build¬ 
ing the beams and floor girders should be arranged to be 
strained up to the allowable fibre strain, and if the positions of 
the columns were fixed according to this arrangement, much 
economy of material would be gained. 

The proper way is to fix upon the loads which the floor- 
beams must carry per square foot of floor area; that is, the 
dead and live loads. Then the spans determined by the loads 
which will strain the beams to the allowed fibre strain. 

Suppose, for example, the columns in the side walls of the 
skeleton frame are spaced 20 feet from centre to centre, and 
the beams 5-feet centres, this being a practicable distance for 
the floor arches, and an equal spacing between side walls. 

The dead and live load to be carried by the beams is 225 
pounds per square foot of floor area. 

The load upon the beam would be 5 X 20 X 225 = 22,500 
pounds, whose coefficient is 20 X 22,500 = 450,000 pounds. 

By referring to the table of properties of steel beams, 
page 69, the coefficient corresponding to this would be a 
\ 2 n X 40 pound per foot I, whose coefficient is 500,100. This 
is an excess of strength, and if 12" X 32 pounds per foot I 
were used, whose coefficient is 395,000 pounds, there would be 
too little strength. 

To accommodate this gain and loss, one of two things must 
be done, viz., the column centres or the depth of beams be 
changed. 

If we increase the column centre to 21 feet, the total load 
would be 5 X 21 X 225 = 23,625, and the coefficient correspond¬ 
ing to this would be 21 X 23,625 =496,125 pounds. 

If a deeper beam is used, say a 15 X 41 pounds per foot I, 
the coefficient by the table is 603,200 pounds—a still greater 
excess of strength, and the former should be adopted. 

It is therefore more economical to space the columns to 
accommodate the full strength of the beams. 

It will be found in working out these floor beams that the 


FLOOR LOAFS AND FLOOR FRAMING. 


67 


deeper beam is more economical not only for strength, but 
for stiffness. If thin floors are not required deep beams should 
be used ; then the arches become heavier, the filling above the 
arches becomes considerable, and if this is of concrete the dead 
load will have to be increased. 

It is therefore desirable that a few trials be given to this 
important question before its final settlement. 

Rolled solid sections should be used in preference to the 
built-up girders, unless lateral stiffness is required; then the 
deeper the girder the stiffer the frame. 

In the skeleton frame, or in narrow buildings, the girders 
generally extend parallel with the narrow front and the beams 
at right angles. 

Having determined the load per square foot to be sup¬ 
ported, the following tables will aid the designer in the con- 
truction of the floors: 

To Determine Coefficient for Beams. —The following 
formula for uniform weights gives coefficient for 12,000 pounds 
strain: 

-} WL — 12,000-, 

where W — weight in pounds uniformly distributed 

L — length in inches; 

I — moment of inertia; 

e = distance of extreme lamina from neutral axis (half 
the depth of I-beam); 

C = coefficient. 

WL — 96,000 - ; 

e 

or if L be given in feet as is usual, then 

WL = 8000- = C. 
e 

EXAMPLE. The moment of inertia of a 15-inch beam 50 
pounds per foot = 522.6. Distance of extreme lamina, 7 ". 5. 

522.6 

Coefficient = 8000 X ~yj~ ~ 557 > 5 °°- 



68 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


PROPERTIES OF WROUGHT-IRON I BEAMS. 


Depth 

of 

Beam. 

Weight 
per ft. 

Area 

of 

Section. 

Thickness 

of 

Web. 

Width 

of 

Flange. 

Moment of 
Inertia, axis 
perpendicular 
to web at 
centre. 

Coefficient, 
12,000 lbs. 
strain. 

inches. 

20 

lbs. 

90.7 

inches. 

27.2 

inches. 

.69 

inches. 

6-75 

1650.3 

1,320,000 

20 

66.7 

20.0 

•50 

6.00 

123S.O 

99O, OOO 

15 

80.0 

24.O 

.76 

6.08 

813.7 

868,000 

15 

66.7 

20.02 

•50 

6.00 

707.O 

748,000 

15 

60.0 

18.O 

•57 

5-45 

625.5 

667,200 

15 

50.0 

15-0 

•49 

5-05 

522.6 

557.500 

* 12J H. 

56.7 

16.77 

.60 

5-50 

39 1 - 2 

511,000 

12 

56.5 

17.0 

.78 

5.16 

348.5 

464,800 

12 

42.O 

12.6 

•51 

4-63 

274.8 

366,400 

12J L. 

41.7 

12.33 

•47 

4-79 

288.0 

377,000 

io£ H. 

45 -o 

13-36 

•47 

5-oo 

233.7 

356,000 

io£ 

40.0 

12.0 

•55 

4.80 

201.7 

307,200 

ioi L. 

35 -o 

10.44 

.38 

4-50 

185.6 

283,000 

io£ 

3 i -5 

9 5 . 

.41 

4-53 

165.0 

251,200 

10J Ex. L. 

30.0 

8.90 

• 3 i 

4-50 

164.0 

250,000 

10 

42.0 

12.6 

•50 

4-75 

198.8 

318,100 

10 

36.0 

10.8 

•44 

4-50 

170.6 

273,000 

10 

30.0 

9.0 

•37 

4.31 

145.8 

233.300 

9 

38.5 

11.6 

.46 

4.71 

150.1 

266,900 

9 

28.5 

9.6 

.40 

4.16 

110.3 

196,000 

9 

23-5 

7 -i 

•34 

3-96 

92.3 

164,000 

8 

34-0 

10.2 

•50 

4.50 

102.0 

203,900 

8 

27.0 

8.1 

.41 

4.09 

82.5 

165,100 

8 

21.5 

6-5 

•33 

3 - 7 i 

66.2 

132,300 

7 

22.0 

6.6 

•38 

3-S2 

51-9 

118,500 

7 

18.0 

5-4 

. 26 

3-52 

44-2 

101,100 

6 

16.0 

4-8 

•25 

3-44 

29.0 

77,400 

6 

13-5 

4.1 

.24 

3-24 

24.4 

65,100 

5 

12.0 

3-6 

.28 

2.96 

14.4 

46,000 

5 

10.0 

3-0 

•23 

2.85 

12.5 

40,000 

4 

7.0 

2.1 

.18 

2.50 

5-7 

22,800 

4 

6.0 

1.8 

.18 

2.18 

4.6 

18,300 

3 

9.0 

2.7 

.40 

2.58 

3-5 

18,900 

3 

5-5 

i -7 

. 16 

2.22 

2-5 

13,400 


To find the safe load in pounds equally distributed, divide the coefficient by 
the span in feet. To find the safe load in pounds, weight in centre of span, 
divide the coefficient by the span in feet, and take one half the quotient. * 


Deflection. — To find the deflection of beams for the 
above distributed loads, divide the square of the span in feet 
by 70 times the depth of beam in inches. 


Letters designate Heavy and Light sections. 































FLOOR LOAFS AND FLOOR FRAMING. 


69 


Coefficients for Steel Beams.—If L be given in feet, 
as before for iron beams, but using 16,000 pounds strain, then 

WL = 10,666 - = C . 
e 


Example. y The moment of inertia of a 9-inch beam 27 
pounds per y<ird is 110.6. Distance of extreme lamina, 4.5. 


Coefficient = 10,666 X 


110.6 


262,200. 


PROPERTIES OF STEEL I BEAMS. 


Depth 

of 

Beam. 

Weight 
per ft. 

Area 

of 

Section. 

Thickness 

of 

Web. 

Width 

of 

Flange. 

Moment of 
Inertia, axis 
perpendicular 
to web at 
centre. 

Coefficient, 
16,000 lbs. 
strain. 

inches. 

lbs. 

inches. 

inches. 

inches. 



24 

IOO 

30.0 

•75 

7.20 

2322.3 

2,064,000 

24 

80 

23.2 

•50 

6-95 

2059.3 

1,830,500 

20 

80 

23-5 

.60 

7.00 

1449.2 

1,545,600 

20 

64 

18.8 

•50 

6.25 

II46.O 

1,222,400 

15 

75 

22.1 

.67 

6.31 

757*7 

1,077,300 

15 

60 

17.6 

•54 

6.04 - 

644.0 

916,300 

15 

50 

14.7 

•45 

5-75 

529-7 

753,300 

15 

4 i 

12.0 

.40 

5-50 

424.1 

603,200 

12 

40 

11.7 

•39 

5-50 

281.3 

500,100 

12 

32 

9.4 

•35 

5-25 

222.3 

395.200 

IO 

32 

9-7 

•37 

5.00 

161.3 

344,000 

JO 

25.5 

7-5 

•32 

4-75 

123.7 

263,800 

9 

27 

7.9 

• 3 i 

4-75 

no .6 

262,200 * 

9 

21 

6.2 

.27 

4-50 

84.3 

199,900 

8 

22 

6-5 

.27 

4-50 

71.9 

191,600 

8 

18 

5-3 

•25 

4-25 

57-8 

154,000 

7 

20 

5-9 

•27 

4-25 

49-7 

151,400 

7 

15-5 

4.6 

•23 

4.00 

38.6 

117,600 

6 

16 

4-7 

.26 

3-63 

28.6 

101,800 

6 

13 

3.8 

•23 

3-50 

23-5 

83,500 

5 

13 

3.8 

.26 

3-13 

15-7 

67,000 

5 

10 

3 -o 

.22 

3.00 

12.4 

52,900 

4 

10 

2.9 

.24 

2-75 

7-7 

41,200 

4 

7-5 

2.0 

.20 

2.63 

5-9 

31,400 


To find the safe load in pounds equally distributed, divide the coefficient by 
the span in feet. To find the safe load in pounds, with weight in centre of 
span, divide the coefficient by the span in feet, and take one half the quotient. 




















JO SKETETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 

Channels—are placed against walls in place of I beams 
to receive the wall arches. 


PROPERTIES OF WROUGHT-IRON CHANNELS. 


Depth 

of 

Channel. 

Weight 
per ft. 

Area 

of 

Section. 

Thickness 

of 

Web. 

Width 

of 

Flange. 

Moment of 
Inertia, axis per¬ 
pendicular to 
web. 

| Coefficient, 

1 12,000 lbs. 

strain. 

inches. 

lbs. 

inches. 

inches. 

inches. 



15 

63-3 

18.85 

•75 

4-75 * 

586.O 

625,000 

15 

60 

18.00 

•93 

3-93 

473-1 

502,000 

15 

40 

12.00 

•50 

4.00 

376.0 

401,000 

12* 

46.6 

I4.IO 

.68 

4.00 

291.6 

381,000 

I 2 i 

23-3 

7.00 

•33 

3.00 

153-2 

201,100 

12 

50 

15.00 

•97 

3-23 

247.3 

329,600 

12 

30 

9.OO 

•47 

2-73 

175.3 

233,600 

12 

20 

6.00 

•32 

3.01 

120.2 

i59>ioo 

io| 

20 

6.00 

•375 

2-75 

88.4 

134.750 

10 

35 

10.50 

•75 

2-95 

126.3 

202,400 

10 

20 

6.00 

•30 

2.50 

88.8 

142,400 

10 

16 

4.80 

•32 

2.51 

62.8 

100,800 

9 

23-3 

7.02 

•43 

3-125 

82.1 

146,000 

9 

30 

9.00 

• 7 i 

2.83 

87.8 

156,800 

9 

18 

5-40 

• 3 i 

2-43 

63-5 

113,600 

9 

16.6 

5-o8 

•33 

2-5 

58.8 

104,000 

8 

28 

8.40 

.76 

2.80 

63.9 

128,000 

8 

15 

4.48 

.26 

2.5 

44.5 

88,950 

8 

11 

3.30 

.20 

2.2 

32.9 

65,800 

7 

20 

8.40 

.76 

2.8 

63-9 

128,000 

7 

12 

3.60 

•25 

2.5 

27.1 

62,000 

6 

16 

4.80 

.52 

2-34 

22.3 

59,600 

6 

11 

3.20 

.28 

2.25 

17.2 

45 , 7 oo 

5 

14 

4.20 

•56 

2.24 

13.10 

41,900 

5 

6 

1.80 

•15 

1.65 

7.16 

22,900 

4 

9 

2.70 

•39 

1.89 

5-75 

23,100 

4 

5 

1.50 

•17 

1.49 

3-69 

14,800 

3 

6 

1.80 

•33 

1.65 

2.22 

11,800 

3 

5 

1-45 

.20 

1.50 

2.0 

10,500 


To find the safe load equally distributed, divide the coefficient by the span 
in feet. For a safe centre load take one half the quotient. 


Note.—I nasmuch as there is a great diversity in published tables of safe 
load for beams, etc., every one must judge for himself what proportion of the 
elastic strength of the beam will best suit his purpose. 


















FLOOR LOADS AND FLOOR FRAMING. 


71 


STEEL CHANNELS. 


Depth 

of 

Channel. 

Weight 
per ft. 

Area 

of 

Section. 

Thickness 

of 

Web. 

Width 

of 

Flange. 

Moment of 
Inertia, axis per¬ 
pendicular 
to web. 

Coefficient, 
16,000 lbs. 
strain. 

inches. 

lbs. 

inches. 

inches. 

inches. 



15 

32.OO 

9.4 

.40 

3.40 

284.5 

404,700 

15 

51.OO 

15.0 

•775 

3-76 

39O.O 

554.700 

12 

20.00 

59 

.30 

2.9O 

117.9 

209,600 

12 

30.25 

8.9 

•55 

3-15 

153-9 

273,600 

IO 

15.25 

4-5 

.26 

2.66 

63.8 

136,100 

IO 

23.75 

7.0 

•51 

2.91 

84.6 

180,500 

9 

12-75 

3-7 

.24 

2.44 

43-3 

102,700 

9 

20.50 

6.0 

•49 

2.69 

58.5 

138,700 

8 

IO.5O 

3 -o 

.22 

2.22 

28.2 

75,300 

8 

17.25 

5-0 

•47 

2.47 

38.9 

103.700 

7 

8.50 

2-5 

.20 

2.00 

17.4 

53.!00 

7 

I4.5O 

4-3 

•45 

2.25 

24.6 

75,000 

6 

7 00 

2.1 

.19 

1.89 

11.1 

39,400 

6 

12.00 

3-6 

• 44 

2.14 

15-6 

55 , 4 oo 

5 

6.00 

i .7 

.18 

1.78 

6.5 

27,900 

5 

10.25 

30 

■43 

2.03 

9.1 

39,000 

4 

5.00 

1.4 

•17 

1.67 

3.5 

18,700 

4 

8.25 

2.4 

•42 

1.92 

4.8 

25,700 


To find the safe load equally distributed, divide the coefficient by the span 
in feet. For a safe centre load take one half the quotient. 


Limits for the Safe Load. —The ‘previous tables of co¬ 
efficients are to be used for the greatest safe loads, and the 
beams are entirely reliable for them under ordinary conditions. 

The character of the load must be considered, and the mode 
of application. 

The loads may be suddenly applied, and the beams subject 
to vibration, or they may be of considerable length without 
lateral support. 

In many such cases it may be necessary to take smaller loads. 

Then again, if the beams are “ rigidly secured ” as in Fig. 40, 
with heavy knees and a number of bolts, a proportionately 
larger load could be applied. 

The following limitations will be proper for specified con¬ 
ditions : 

















72 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


Character of Loading. 

Greatest Safe Load. 

Quiescent loads, subject to little vibration, as in ordi¬ 
nary floors, etc., especially where beams are short, 

As in tables. 

Fluctuating loads, causing vibration, especially if the 
beams are long as compared to their depth. 

One fifth Q) less than 
tables. 

When loads are suddenly applied, or exposed to vibra¬ 
tion from machinery or rapidly moving loads. 

One third (£) less than 
tables. 


If beams are supported as described below, the greatest 
safe loads will bear the given ratios to the above tables: 


Character of Beam. 

Greatest Safe Load. 

Fixed at one end, with the load concentrated at the 
other end. 

One eighth (^) part of 
that found by tables. 

Fixed at one end, with the load uniformly distributed. 

One fourth (^) of the 
tables. 

Rigidly fixed at both ends, with the load in the middle 
of beam. 

Same as found by 
tables. 

Rigidly fixed at both ends, with the load uniformly 
- distributed. 

One and one half (i^) 
times that found by 
the tables. 

Continuous beam, loaded in middle. 

Same as found by the 
tables. 

Continuous beam, load uniformly distributed. 

One and one half (i-£) 
times that found by 
the tables. 


Beams with Fixed Ends.—By beams “ rigidly secured,” 
as denoted by the above, is meant that the beam must be 
securely fastened at both ends by being connected by knees, 
or so firmly secured that the connection will not be severed if 
the beam was exposed to the ultimate load. 

In this case the beam is of the same character as if contin¬ 
uous over several supports, or as if consisting of two cantilevers, 
the space between whose ends are spanned by a separate beam. 

Beam Connections.—The beams and their spacing having 
been determined upon, the next but not least important ques- 


















FLOOR LOADS AND FLOOR FRAMING. 7 $ 

tion is that the connections are sufficiently strong to support 
the beams and their loads. 

This is determined by riveting or bolting to the ends of 
each beam, when they connect with each other or to the girders, 
angle-knees with sufficient rivets or bolts to resist the shear¬ 
ing moment; that is, the strain at the joint multiplied by the 
leverage or average distance of the bolt or rivet from the face 
of joint. 

The following size angles can be economically used for all 
the different size steel beams in use, providing the end of beam 
does not rest upon a seat riveted to the girder. Two angles 
are used to each end. 


Size of Beam. 

Minimum 
Safe Span 
in Feet. 

Size of Angles in Inches. 

No. of 
Rivets, 
diam., 
in each 
Leg. 

20" X 84 lbs. per ft. 

1 / O" 

4" X 4" X t" X 15" long 

5 

20 X 64 “ 

16 O 

“ “ “ “ 

5 

15 X 75 “ 

12 O 

6" X 6 " X tY' X 10" “ 

5 

15 X 60 “ 

II 5 

if a it t ( 

5 

15 x 50 “ 

II 0 

ft tt tt it 

5 

15 X 41 “ 

10 5 

a n n tt 

5 

12 X 40 “ 

8 5 

6" X 6 " X tY' X 8" “ 

5 

12 X 32 “ 

7 5 

* 6 44 “ 

5 

10 X 33 “ 

10 5 

6 " X 6 " X ,Y' X 6£" “ 

3 

10 X 25.5 “ 

9 0 

4 < “ 4 ‘ “ 

3 

9 X 27 “ 

9 5 

6 " X 6 " X tY' X 5 " “ 

3 

9 X 21 “ 

8 0 

H H if it 

3 

8 X 22 “ 

8 0 

i i it a if 

3 

8 X 18 “ 

7 0 


3 

7 X 20 “ 

6 0 

6 " X 6" X t" X 5" “ 

3 

7 X 15.5 “ 

5 5 

H “ “ <4 

3 

6 X 16 “ 

6 5 

3f' X 3 i" X f" X 2f" “ 

1 

6 X 13 “ 

6 0 


1 


To get the full strength of the beams: if the spans are in¬ 
creased the number of rivets would decrease, and vice versa. 

New York Building Law Relating to Beam Connec¬ 
tions. — 11 SEC. 484. All iron or steel trimmer-beams, headers, 
and tail-beams shall be suitably framed and connected together, 
and the iron girders, columns, beams, trusses, and all other iron¬ 
work of all floors and roofs shall be strapped, bolted, anchored, 














74 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


and connected together and to the walls in a strong and sub¬ 
stantial manner. Where beams are framed into headers, the 
angles which are bolted to the tail-beams shall have at least two 
bolts for all beams over seven inches in depth, and three bolts 
for all beams 12 inches and over in depth, and these bolts 
shall not be less than f inch in diameter. 

“ Each one of such angles or knees when bolted to girders 
shall have the same number of bolts as stated for the other leg. 

“ The angle-iron in no case shall be less in thickness than the 
header or trimmer to which it is bolted, and the width of angle 
in no cases shall be less than one third the depth of beam, ex¬ 
cepting that no angle-knee shall be less than inches wide, 
nor required to be more than 6 inches wide. 

“ All wrought-iron or rolled-steel beams 8 inches deep and 
under shall have bearings equal to their depth if resting on a 
wall; 9 to \ 2 -inch beams shall have a bearing of io inches , and 
all beams more than 12 inches in depth shall have bearings of 
not less than 12 inches if resting on a wall. 

“ Where beams rest on iron supports and are properly tied 
to the same, no greater bearings shall be required than the 
depth of the beams. 

“ Iron or steel floor beams shall be so arranged as to spacing 
and length of beams that the load to be supported by them, 
together with the weight of the materials used in the construc¬ 
tion of the said floors, shall not cause a deflection of the said 
beams of more than fa of an inch per lineal foot of span ; and 
they shall be tied together at intervals of not more than 8 
times the depth of the beam.” 

In comparing the strength of the beams with the number 
of bolts required, we will be able to determine at what span the 
above law would apply. We will take the smallest number of 
bolts and the largest beam allowed for that number, which will 
be a io X 32 lbs. per foot I. 

We first determine the value of the f-inch bolts in each end 
of the beam, being four in number, two for each end. 


FLOOR LOADS AND FLOOR FRAMING. 


75 


The greatest safe shear allowed upon bolts and rivets by 
the New York Building Law is 9000 lbs. per square inch. 

The area of a f inch bolt = .4418 square inches; this mul¬ 
tiplied by 9000 = 39 72 lbs., the safe shear each bolt would sus¬ 
tain in single shear, being in double shear twice the value, or 
2 X 3976 = 7952 pounds. Multiplying this by the whole num¬ 
ber of bolts in each end equal 7952 X 4 = 31,808 lbs., the 
entire strength of the bolts in the beam. 

By referring to the table of steel beams the coefficient of a 
10 X 32 lbs. per foot I — 344,000; this divided by 31,808 = 10.8, 
the least span in feet to which the beam could be used to make 
the strength of beam and connection equal. 

If the above beam is used over a larger span the connection 
will require less bolts and vice versa . 

Suppose we now try the 15" X 60 lbs. per foot I, in which 3 
bolts are required, and determine the-span we could use the 
number of bolts designated. 

The safe shearing value of the bolts, 3 in each end, would 
be 6 bolts X 7952 = 47,712 lbs., the entire strength of the 
bolts. 

Then, by the same table, the coefficient of the beam is 
916,300 

916,300; this divided by - = 18.1 ft., the least span in 

which the beam could be used to make the strength of beam 
and connection equal. 

The legs of the angles against the header, girder, or beam to 
which the framed beam is secured should have twice the num¬ 
ber of bolts; that is, the bolts in these legs are in single shear, 
they therefore require the above number. 

Of the different beams and their connections used in the 
floor framing, those shown in Fig. 40# seem to cover this num¬ 
ber; 20-inch beams being used mostly for girders, they are not 
shown in the figure. The 15-inch beams have 6 bolts £ inch 
in diameter at each end, or equal to 12 in the entire beam ; 
then 12 X 7952 == 95,424 lbs. The coefficient 916,300 divided 



;6 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


by 95,424 = 9.6 feet. The 12-inch beams, 40 lbs. per foot, 
have 10 bolts in all; then 10 X 7952 = 79,520 lbs. The coef- 








Fig. 4o«. 

ficient 500,100 divided by 79,520 = 6.2 feet, 
manner with the other sizes. 


Continue in like 





































































































































































FLOOR LOADS AND FLOOR FRAMING. 

Floor Arches. —-The common mode of filling-in between 
the beams of a floor was the brick arch ; but this is largely out 
of use, and in its place a cheap material is now extensively 
used, which consists principally of burnt fire-clay, and among 
the many qualities possessed by the holloiv fire-clay blocks is 
their special application to fire-proof floors. 

1. They are absolutely fire-proof, having been submitted 
during their course of manufacture to a white heat. 

2. They are water-proof, and can be erected as fast as the 
walls will admit of the beams being set. In case of an incipient 
fire, water poured on the floors can have no bad effect to their 
solidity. 

3. They offer a flat surface on the bottom and top after 
they are laid, thereby giving a flat ceiling for plastering and a 
flat surface for floor-sleepers and filling. 

4. They are much lighter than the old solid brick arch, and 
are free from shrinkage. 

5. They can be made any depth and accommodated to large 
and small spans. 

WEIGHT AND SAFE SPANS FOR HOLLOW FIRE BLOCKS. 


Width of Span. 

Depth of 
Arch. 

Weight 
per Sq. Ft. 

Safe Load in 
Lbs. per Sq. Ft. 

3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. 

6 in. 

29 lbs. 

1,000 

4 ft. to 4 ft. 6 in. . . . 

7 “ 

33 “ 

1,200 

4 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft. 

8 “ 

37 “ 

1,400 

5 ft. 6 in. to 6 ft. 

9 “ 

40 “ 

1,500 

6 ft. 0 in. to 6 ft. 6 in.. . . 

10 “ 

43 “ 

1,500 

6 ft. 6 in. to 7 ft. 6 in- 

12 “ 

48 “ 

1,800 


The 6-inch block to be used for light purposes, 8-inch for 
office buildings, 10-inch for theatres, and the 12-inch for ware¬ 
houses. 

The manner of applying hollow blocks is shown in Fig. 41. 
Those adjoining the beam are called skew backs , and made with 
a shoulder formed to fit the flange, and extend f to ij inches, 
below, completely covering the beam, as at Fig. 6. The centre 
















78 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 

block is the key, and the intermediate blocks are so placed, 
when laid in cement, that they form a complete arch. All are 
dove-tailed to receive the plastering, as shown in Fig. 5. 

Brick Arches. —Brick arches properly built between the 
beams are practically indestructible from any usage that would 
occur in a building. 

That brick arches will endure considerably more than the 
beams would sustain was shown by the loading of an arched 
floor at the Watertown Arsenal, Mass. 

“ A floor 29 ft. square was composed of five 15-inch I-beams, 
200 lbs. per yard, carrying brick arches. 

“ The beams were 7 ft. 4.8 in. apart on centres, and rested 
on brick walls 28 ft. 6 in. apart. The size of the brick arches 
was 8|- in. in the 7 ft. 4.8 in. span. Soft-burned bricks were 
used, laid on edge with lime mortar. The arches were backed 
or levelled on top with concrete and planked-over. The maxi¬ 
mum load carried by the floor was 563 lbs. per square foot, and 
the beams failed and not the arches. This load caused a con¬ 
tinuous yielding of the beams, which was allowed to continue. 
All the floor was deflected a distance of 13.07 in., measured at 
the centre of the middle beams. The brick-work endured this 
great deflection, and apparently would have stood much more 
without failure. 

Porous Terra-cotta Arches is a mixture of clay and saw¬ 
dust, or any other combustible matter may be substituted, such 
as shavings, tanbark, and charcoal. After the compound is 
properly mixed the blocks are moulded, and, when sufficiently 
dry, placed in a kiln prepared for the purpose and subjected to 
a great heat adequate to consume all the combustible matter, 
leaving the blocks porous. 

For hanging ceilings, etc., these blocks are made in different 
sizes. The T’s are spaced about 25 in. centres; then the blocks, 
24 in. wide, are set in place with cement, as shown in Figs. 1 
and 2. 

Fig. 4 is a column protected by a casing of ribbed blocks 


FLOOR LOADS AND FLOOR FRAMING. 


79 


with an air space between. The blocks are dovetailed on the 
outside for holding the plastering and set with cement, and 



Tig. 3 


Tig 4 


'HOLLOW BLOCKS AS FIATARCHES - FIRE PROOFING COLUMNS 



firmly secured with copper wire bound on the outside. Square 
cast iron, wrought, or steel columns are made fire-proof in 
various ways by the terra-cotta blocks. 




















































8o 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


WEIGHT OF POROUS TERRA-COTTA FOR FURRING, ROOFING, 

AND CEILING. 


Hollow clay furring . 



2 in. thick 

12 lbs. per sq. ft. 

Porous terra-cotta furring . 



2 “ 

8 

it ti 

“ roofing . 



2 “ 

12 “ “ 

“ 

a a 



3 “ 

16 

<< a 

“ reilincf . 



2 “ 

11 “ “ 

XI << 

it a 



3 " 

15 “ 

WEIGHT OF 

HOLLOW BURNT 

CLAY AND 

1 POROUS TERRA 


COTTA 

PARTITIONS. 


Hollow Clay. 



Porous Terra-cotta. 

3 in. thick. . 

.. 14 lbs. per sq. 

ft. 

3 

in. thick. . . . 

12 lbs. per sq. ft. 

4 “ 

.. i8i “ 

‘ 

4 

“ .... 

17 

5 “ •• 

..23 

‘ 

5 

ti 

23 

6 “ 

..25 “ 

‘ 

6 


27 

7 “ 

..31 

* 

7 

if 

31 “ 

8 “ 

••34 “ 

* 

8 

(c 

36 “ 


Concrete Arches.—Concrete arches are composed of 
broken stone, fragments of brick, pottery, and gravel, held to¬ 
gether by being mixed with lime, cement, asphaltum, or other 
binding surfaces. 

Mr. E. L. Ransome,* a successful worker of concrete in 
San Francisco, conceived the idea of using square bars of iron 
and steel, twisted the entire length, in place of flat bars and 
wires, as had been used by other experimenters on the subject. 
It was found that these bars were held in the concrete equally 
as well if not better than the others, and that they were much 
less expensive. The sizes used ranged from J in. to 2 in. square. 

A section of a flat floor in the California Academy of 
Science, 15 X 22 ft., was tested in 1890 with a uniform load of 
415 lbs. per square foot, and the load left on for one month. 
The deflection at the centre of the 22-ft. space was only -J- in. 
It was estimated by the architects that the saving in this con¬ 
struction over the ordinary use of steel beams and hollow fire- 


* Kidder’s “Architects’ Pocket Book.” 




















FLOOR LOADS AND FLOOR FRAMING. 


8l 


blocks of the same strength, and with similar cement-finished 
floors on top, amounted to 50 cents per square foot of floor. 

Corrugated Arches or Flooring. —The trough-shaped 
sections, known as Pencoyd corrugated flooring, as shown in 
P'ig. 42, are now successfully used in the floors of buildings as 
well as bridges. The smaller section A is generally applied to 
buildings, B to bridges. 


LOADS IN LBS. PER SQUARE FOOT WHICH CAUSE A DEFLECTION 
EQUAL TO OF THE SPAN, TABLE FOR “A” SECTION. 


Weight of Ma¬ 
terial per Sq. Ft. 

Span in Feet. 

Iron. 

Steel. 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

M -5 

14.8 

2,460 

1,400 

900 

600 

420 

300 

230 

180 

140 

no 

90 

18.O 

18.4 

3,000 

U 750 

1,100 

740 

520 

380 

290 

220 

170 

140 

no 

21.5 

21.9 

3,600 

2,120 

1,300 

900 

630 

460 

340 

250 

210 

170 

130 

25.O 

25-5 

4,200 

2,500 

i, 57 o 

1,050 

740 

540 

400 

310 

240 

200 

160 

28.5 

29.1 

4,800 

2,850 

1,800 

1,200 

850 

620 

460 

360 

280 

220 

180 


Figs. I and 2 show the manner of supporting the flooring; 
Fig. I has wooden sleepers filled in between with ashes or con¬ 
crete ; this filling completely deadens the floor. In Fig. 2 the 
wooden flooring rests directly upon the iron-work. 

It is very important to have at least 3 or 4 inches from the 
top of the girder beams to the finished floor, to allow some 
space between the wooden flooring and girders for the passing 
of pipes.' . 

In Fig. 43 is another method of forming an arch between 
I-beams. At A, B is the depth of the corrugation ; A is the 
width, which varies from 2 to 5 in.; B represents the applica¬ 
tion between the I-beams. 

The Gustavino Tile Arch. —Within a few years a method 
of constructing floor arches by means of thin tile, cemented 
together so as to make one solid mass, has been introduced. 
The floors are constructed by covering the space between the 
girders by a single vault of tile 6" X 8" X £" thick, cemented 
together in three or more thicknesses, depending upon the size 




















82 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


of the arch. The thickness is generally increased at the 
haunches. The strength of these floors, considering their 
thickness, appears remarkable. 

The system is employed in a number of buildings in New 
York and Boston, and seems to be very desirable among 



architects for vaulted ceilings for decoration purposes, as the 
vault can be made the size of the room. 

Tie Rods. —The horizontal thrust of arches is provided for 
by,the use of tie-rods from f to -J inches in diameter; § of an 
inch are more frequently used, spaced from 4 to 6 ft. apart in 
the centre of the depth of the beams. The thrust of brick 
arches per lineal foot can be found by the formula 


1.5 WD 
R ’ 












































FLOOR LOADS AND FLOOR FRAMING. 83 


in which W is equal to the load per square foot, R — the rise 
of the arch in inches, and L = the span in feet. 

Example. —The beams supporting an arched brick floor are 
4 feet apart, and the rise of the arches is 4 inches. 

The totaV dead load of floor and live load equal 150 lbs. per 
square foot. Then, 


1.5 X 150 X 16 


= 900 lbs. pressure per lineal foot of arch. 


c 


If f-inch diameter rods are used which have an effective section 
of .420 square inches, then .42 X 15,000 (the greatest stress al¬ 
lowed on rods) = 6300 lbs., which is the greatest load the rod 
should be allowed to sustain, and = 7 feet = greatest 

distance apart of the tie rods. 

This same calculation can be applied to flat arches, taking 
one half of the depth of the arch for the rise; in an 8-inch arch 
4 inches equal the rise. 



CHAPTER V. 



Fig. 45. — Home Life In¬ 
surance Building. Front 
Elevation. 


THE HOME LIFE INSURANCE 
BUILDING, N. Y. 

The new building for the Home 
Life Insurance Company, as designed 
by N. Le Brun & Sons, Architects, is 
situated at Nos. 256 and 258 Broad¬ 
way, opposite the City Hall Park, on a 
plot of ground 55 feet 6 in. by 109 feet. 

The construction is entirely fire¬ 
proof and of the composite description, 
as provided for in the New York 
Building Law, passed April, 1892. 

The constructive metal work is of 
wrought steel throughout, and with 
rare exceptions the various members 
are riveted together. The connections 
are designed with particular reference 
to the lateral stresses incidental to 
such a tall and narrow structure. As 
far as possible the constructive metal 
work is protected by terra-cotta or 
other fireproof material. 

The front is built of white Tucka- 
hoe marble, and is designed in the 
early Italian Renaissance style ; elabo¬ 
rately decorated at the base with 
delicate carving, of simple finish in 
the middle portion, while it terminates 

34 























































THE HOME LIFE INSURANCE BUILDING, NY. 85 

at the top with a boldly broken and picturesque outline. The 
height from the curb to the top of the marble pinnacle over 
the centre is 214 feet, while at the top of the spire it is 257 
feet. 

The marble of the front extends through the full thick¬ 
ness of the wall from base to cornice. 

Below the sidewalk there are two stories, in the lowermost 
of which is situated all the machinery of the building for 
running the three elevators, the dynamos, the fans for ven¬ 
tilation, etc. 

The company occupies several floors, and have their main 
office in the second story. The balance of the building is 
designed for renting. The same substantial character which 
distinguishes the constructive portions of the building has been 
continued in the balance of the work. 

The stairs and elevator screens are of cast-iron, wrought- 
iron, and marble, designed in the same period of renaissance as 
the front. Much of this ornamental iron-work is electro-plated. 
The finish of the office floors are comparatively plain, but the 
office of the company and the main entrance hall are profusely 
decorated with relief ornaments. 

The building was at first constructed upon a plot 30 feet 
6 inches wide by 107 feet deep (see Figs. 47, 48, and 51); seven 
tiers of beams were set when it was decided to increase the 
size of the building by the purchase of the adjoining property, 
while another story was added to the original height (compare 
elevation, Fig. 45, with the transverse section Fig. 51 and the 
longitudinal section, Fig. 52). 

The wall between the row of columns on the right was dis¬ 
pensed with and two columns placed each side of the centre, as 
shown on the beam plan, Fig. 46, in place of the right F 
column, which was transferred to the same position to the right 
of the increased lot as it previously occupied in the smaller 
lot. 

A duplicate of the original plan (Fig. 47) was adopted in 


86 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS . 


the added area, with the exception that a large light court is 
placed in the centre, directly to the right or back of the eleva¬ 
tors and shown on the beam plan, Fig. 46. 

Beam Plan. —In arranging the beams upon the plan, 
economy of material has been strictly observed. The calcu¬ 
lated weight, including dead and live load, is 175 lbs. per square 
foot of surface throughout the different floors, which includes 
a certain percentage for partitions, plastering, floor blocks, 
wooden flooring, tiling, etc. 

The steel beams are spaced about 5 feet from centre to 
centre. 

The three spans between columns marked F and B and the 
span between C and R are 9 inch by 70 lbs. and 9 inch 85 lbs. 
per yard. 

The span between B and C are 12" X 125 lbs. per yard,, 
while the largest span between B columns have 15 X 123 lbs. 
per yard beams, and 9" beams rest upon the top at right angles 
to the same and support the cast-iron mullions of the left 
light-court. 

The double beam girders supporting the curtain-walls be¬ 
tween columns /^and B, C and R are io" X 90 lbs. per yard; 
between columns B a lattice girder ; between columns B and 
C, 12" X 125 lbs. per yard. 

The F and A , A and A columns are spaced 13' centres; A 
and B, 13' g" ; B and B, 22 '; B and C\ 19' 4" ; C and F, 15' £". 

In connecting the columns to each other and to the floor 
girders, knee^braces of plates and angles are extensively used. 
These braces are placed in the north and south wall column 
and made 3 and 4 feet in length, and reduced from that length 
to 18 inches in the top story (see section, Fig. 50). 

Floor Plan. —The plan as shown at Fig. 47 describes in 
itself the area of the building as originally designed, divided 
to the best advantage into offices, halls, stairways, elevators, 
and light-courts ; and, as previously mentioned, almost a dupli¬ 
cate of this plan was arranged in the additional 25 feet of 


7 HE HOME LIFE INSURANCE BUILDING , N. Y. 87 

width. The wall at the right of building shown on the same 
plan was omitted. 



Fig. 46.—Beam Plan of Upper Stories. 

The front offices face Broadway; the inside offices are light 
through the light-courts, which extend from the lower floors to 
































































88 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 



Fig. 47.—Floor Plan as Originally 
Started. 


M 

R 

;- 1 



— 

rM 

c 

kj 

Lj 

IM 

3 

,iB 

-: 

— 


— 

C* 1 

</> 

t 

l 

to 

Bt.i 

on 

~7 

f 

1 

1, 

r 1 

<0 

a 

0 

\ 

a 

tu 

h. .11 


«[ 

s 1 

1 

1 Light Court 

1 

i 

1 


'1 

1 

,1 


1 

1 

1. 


n 

1 

.! 

\ 

\ 

. A 

1 

1 

1 

ij 

* 

— 

-- — 

1 -- 

— 

B r« 

m 

0 4 

- : 

— 

- • — 


nJ 

_til 

'pA 

— 

.-- 

: - 

— 

—7^ t 

Fuji 



Fig. 48.—Beam Plan as Originally 
Started. 


























































































































THE HOME LIFE INSURANCE BUILDING , N. Y, 89 

the roof. The walls enclosing the courts are built in between 
cast-iron mullions with flat moulded cast-iron cornices, and faced 
with white enamelled brick, the entire thickness being but 12 
inches on all stories. The adjoining building on the left or 
south side has a corresponding light court, and the combined 
areas admit of so much light that these inner offices are equally 
as well light as those facing the street. 

This plan shows a toilet-room in the rear of the building, 
but occurs only on a few stories; in the majority of the floors 
this space is utilized as an office. 

The hall is also well-light as can be readily perceived, the 
partitions enclosing the same being punctured by windows to 
a considerable extent, and further light by a roof skylight and 
the large light court at rear of elevators. 

Curtain Walls. —The side walls of the lower stories are as 
follows: Cellar, 2 ft. 4 in. thick; basement, 2 ft. 4 in. ; first 
story, 24 in. ; second story, 24 in.; third to sixth, 20 in.; sixth 
to tenth, 16 in.; the stories above the tenth are enclosed with 
a 12-in. wall, supported upon double beam girders, as previously 
described. The columns of the south wall are encased on the 
outside by 4 in. of this curtain wall, extending from the base to 
the roof. The north wall columns are placed 8 in. from the 

party wall, and faced on the inside by fireproof blocks, thus 

ensuring a complete covering in case of fire. The rear wall of 
building as well as the light-courts are shown in part elevation, 
plan and section at Fig. 49. This wall is 12 in. thick, built in 
as shown, supported its entire width by the plate girders be¬ 
tween the R columns, as shown in the section. The cornice 

above the windows is first set in place ; then the wall is built, 

and the cast-iron window-sill set. The mullions on the side 
nearest the columns are built in with the brick-work; the inside 
mullions are secured top and bottom to the bottom and top of 
plate girder. The entire combination is so constructed as to 
give to the outside an appearance of solidity, yet it takes but 
little area from the lot. 


9 o 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS . 


This figure also shows the connection of the R columns with 
the girder in such a manner that the column joint is per¬ 
fectly rigid without the use of the knee-braces , by referring to 
the elevation of column, it will be seen that the joint is in the 




Fig. 49.—Section and Part Elevation of Rear and North Court 
Walls showing Mullions and Fascias. 

centre of the girder; the girder being 4 feet high, the columns 
are practically stronger at the joint than at the body. 

Columns and Girders.—The materials for the columns and 
girders for this building are fully described in the tables, with 
the height of stories and loads to be supported, and need but 
little description here; but it will be noticed that but few 
columns are required in the height of the entire structure (see 
Transverse Section, Fig. 51). This is not only an advantage in 
setting, etc., but also gives great rigidity to the frame, so that 
the danger of any movement of tops of columns is reduced to 
a minimum. 





















































































































































THE HOME LIFE INSURANCE BUILDING , N. Y. 91 



Fig. 50.—Transverse Section of North Wall Masonry, Elevation of 
South Wall Columns and Floor Girders. 




























































































9 2 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS . 


STEEL COLUMNS HOME LIFE BUILDING. 
Columns Marked “A.” 


• 

Length. 

Outside Plates. 

| 

Webs. 

Angles. 

1 Load. 


Feet. 

In. 

No. 

Size in In. 

No. 

Size in In. 

No. 

! Size in In. 

Tons. 

Basement 1 

IO 

O 

4 

2°X| 

I 

12 x f 

4 

6 X 4 X 1 

503 

ist story 

19 

9 

4 


I 

“ 

4 

“ 

460.00- 

2d “ 

25 

6 

4 ! 

“ 

I 

“ 

4 

“ 

4I5-28. 

3 d “ 

13 

6 

4 i 

“ 

I 

<< 

4 

< ( 

385-92 

4 th “ 

12 

9 

i 2 

\ 2 

20X! 

2oXi 

I 

I 


4 

I 4 


357 - 63 . 

5th “ 

12 

3 


i6Xf 

i6xl 

I 

I 

12 X | 

l 4 

4 

a 

318.82 

6th “ 

12 

5 

2 

i6Xf 

I 


4 


277.61 

7 th 44 

II 

6 

j* ' 
\ 2 

1 4 X i 9 s 
MXi 

I 

I 


4 

4 

i ( 

< < 

239.48 

8th 44 

II 

6 

2 

“ 

1 

10 X 1 

4 

5 X 3 iXi 

202.35. 

gth “ 

II 

6 

2 

I 4 X^ 

I 

44 

4 

iC 

161.52 

ioth “ 

II 

6 

2 

l2Xh 

I 

SXi 

4 

is 

134.60- 

nth “ 

II 

6 

2 

“ 

I 


4 

i ( 

104.00 

12th “ 

II 

6 

2 

“ 

I 


4 

€ i 

74.38 

13th 44 

13 

0 

2 

“ 

1 


4 

i i 

45.87 

14th “ 

II 

9 

2 


I 

i i 

4 


17 


Columns Marked “ B.” 





( 2 

20x1 





■ 

Basement 

10 

0 

] 4 

20 Xyj 

1 

I 2 Xf 

4 

6 X 4 X 1 

744.50 




( 2 

20 Xf 






1 st story 

19 

9 

2 

20 Xf 

1 


4 

i t 

682.50 

2d " 

25 

0 

j 2 

1 6 

20 Xf 

20Xf 

1 

ii 

4 

44 

617.50 

3 d “ 

13 

0 

6 

20 X 1 

1 

a 

4 

44 

579.00 

4th * 4 

12 

9 

6 

‘ t 

1 

i i 

4 

44 

532.00 

5th “ 

12 

3 

6 

i i 

1 

4 i 

4 

< < 

477.00 

6th 4 4 

12 

5 

4 


1 

4 4 

4 

44 

413.50 

7 th 44 

n 

6 

i: 

l6X| 

i6Xi 

1 

19 XI 

4 

5 X 3 iXi 

356.50 

8th 44 

n 

6 

i 2 

t 4 

i6Xf 

i6Xi 

1 

ii 

4 

< < 

304.00 

9th 44 

n 

6 

4 

i6Xi 

1 

ii 

4 

i i 

244.00 

ioth 44 

n 

6 

4 


1 

8X1 

4 

a 

201.00 

nth “ 

n 

6 

4 

€€ 

1 

44 

4 

t i 

155.00 

12th 44 

n 

6 

2 

ii 

1 

i i 

4 

n 

in.00 

13th 44 

13 

0 

2 

ii 

1 


4 

a 

68.25 

14th 44 

n 

9 

2 


1 

i i 

4 

i s 

30.30 
























































THE HOME LIFE INSURANCE BUILDING , N. Y. 93 


STEEL COLUMNS HOME LIFE BUILDING. 

Columns Marked C. 




Length. 

Outside Plates. 

Webs. 

Angles. 

Load. 



Feet. 

III. 

No. 

Size in In. 

No. 

Size in In. 

No. 

Size in Inches. 

Tons. 

Basement 

IO 

O 

\i 

Mhf M|cc 

XX 
0 0 

C4 <N 

I 

12 X f 

4 

6 X 4 X f 

577-57 

1st story 

19 

9 

2 

< i 

I 

44 

4 

4 4 

53 i- 0 

2d 

4 < 

25 

0 

4 

20 X f 

I 

4 4 

4 

4 4 

493-20 

3 d 

4 4 

13 

0 

4 


I 

4 4 

4 

4 4 

450.00 

4th 

4 4 

12 

9 

I! 

16 x Tff 

16 X £ 

I 

4 4 

4 

44 

418.50 

5th 

44 

12 

3 

4 

< < 

I 

4 4 

4 

4 4 

368.50 

6th 

4 4 

12 

5 

4 

16 x 1 

I 

i 4 

4 

44 

326.00 

7th 

4 4 

11 

6 

\i 

16x1 

16 x 4 

I 

IO x 1 

4 

5 X 3 *Xi 

2S2.00 

8th 

a 

II 

6 

2 

(4 

I 

44 

4 

44 

236.60 

9th 

« i 

II 

6 

2 

16 x 1 

I 

4 4 

4 

4 4 

195-70 

10th 

« i 

II 

6 

2 

x 4 X h 

I 

8 X i 

4 

44 

159-50 

nth 

i < 

II 

6 

2 

i 4 

I 

4 • 

4 

4 4 

123.52 

12th 

< ( 

II 

6 

2 

4 i 

I 

4 4 

4 

44 

88.00 

13th 

< ( 

13 

0 

2 

14 X i 

I 

4 4 

4 

44 

54 - 8 o 

14th 

i i 

II 

9 

2 

i ( 

I 

1 4 

4 

4 4 

23-55 


These columns were supplied with f in. thick plates between, and at back of 
column, with knee-braces at the joints, and when connections were made into 
the transverse floor girders. 






























94 


SKELE TON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


STEEL GIRDERS HOME LIFE BUILDING. 
Girders Marked A. 


2d tier . 

. Web 24" X 1 " X 26'- 9 |" 

long, 6 " X 4" X 

3 d “ . 

.. “ “ X 

i i it 

4th “ . 

a a y^ t t 

i i it 

5th “ . 

. . “ “ X 26-11^ 

it a 

6th “ . 

. . ,f “ X 26-iof 

a a 

7th “ . 

i t << ^ it 

tt a 

Sth “ . 

. . “ “ X 27-0I 

a a 

9th “ .... .. 

• • “ “ X 27 - 3 i 

tt a 

10th “ . 

a a ^ a 

“ 6X4XI 

nth “ . 

• . “ “ X 27-5!- 

it t * 

12th “ . 

.. “ “ X 27-9! 

a 11 

13th “ . 

ft ti y^ i i 

“ 5 X 3 i X f 

14th “ . 

it i( y^ i i 

it it 

15th “ . 

a a y^ a 

it a 

16 th “ . 

n ti y^ a 

a a 


Girders marked B, C, and F are similar to the above, but vary in length. 

Girder Marked R. 

2d tier. Web 24" X f" X 26'-n£" 4-6" X 4" X L’s. 

( Web 4 S" X I" X 26-1 if" 2-3" X 3" X |" L. 

3d to 16th tiers.-j Top plate 12" X f" X “ “ “ 

( Bott. “ 12'' Xfx “ “ “ 

FIRST TIER OF BOX GIRDERS. 

Girders Marked “A.” 

4 top plates 20" X i" X 29' 4$'' long. 

4 bott. “ 20'' X £" X “ “ 

4 web “ 28T' X i" X “ 

4 angles 6'' X 4"X f"X “ “ 

Girders Marked B. 

4 top plates 20" X f" X 29' 4V' long. 

2 “ “ 20" X I" X “ 

4 bott. “ 20" x r X “ 

2 “ “ 20" X f " X “ 

2 web “ 26!" X f X “ 

4 angles 6"X 4"X 1 " X “ “ 

These girders were supplied with stiffeners, extra plates and cast separators 
in each end, to resist shearing and buckling of the webs. 
































THE HOME LIFE INSURANCE BUILDING , N. Y. 95 

The girders of the first tier rest upon cast-iron base plates, 
which set upon granite blocks, as shown in the section, Fig. 50. 

Bases for the A columns are 4' long, 3' high, and 1thick ; 
B bases, y' X f X 2" and ribs; C bases, 5' 6" X 3' X if"; 
A and R bases, 3'x 3'X i£". The columns do not set directly 
upon the bases, but rest upon the girders; the weight upon a 
column is transmitted through the girder to the base plate, 
the girder being stiffened to resist shearing and buckling of 
the webs by heavy wrought-steel plates, angle stiffeners, and 
heavy cast-iron separators, the centre line of pressure is thus 
extended farther from the party wall than it would be if the 
column was supported directly upon the granite block. 
Specification of the several works , materials, matters and things 
to be done and furnished for the cast and wrought iron and 
steel work , etc., for the building of the Home Life Insurance 
Company, at No. 256, 258 Broadzvay, in the city of New 
York. 

All steel and iron work throughout the building is to be 
executed in the best and most substantial manner, and the 
contractor is to provide all requisite materials, implements, 
models, mechanical appliances, tools, carriage, scaffolding, etc., 
of every kind and description, necessary to properly execute 
and erect all the works, and protect the same during construc¬ 
tion. The whole work is to be done according to the plans, 
drawings, and directions of N. Le Brun & Sons, architects, 
and subject to their approval. 

General. —The transverse girders shown on framing plans 
are to be at right angles with the southern wall of building, 
with the exception of the first, against the Broadway front, 
and the beams will be parallel to the southern wall. 

All the various members of the wrought constructional 
work are to be of steel. The general design of the various 
parts is shown in the scale drawings and details, and the con¬ 
tractor is to include all the angles, splice plates, ties, braces, 
drilling, riveting, bolting, etc., etc., necessary to put the work 


9 6 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


together in a perfect, workman-like manner, as may be here¬ 
after directed or designed. 

The columns are to be made in lengths of not over three 
stories. 

The angles and plates in columns and girders to be whole 
from end to end, unless otherwise shown, or allowed by the 
architects. 

The rivets for columns and girders to be inches in diame¬ 
ter, unless otherwise indicated. 

The base plates under first tier of girders are to be set per¬ 
fectly true and level. 

The columns must be set so that their axes are perfectly 
plumb, and the outside faces of columns are to be kept plumb 
for full height of building, 4 inches from the outside face of 
walls. The columns in top story vary in height. 

The connection between the columns, and connections 
between columns and girders are shown in general on the 
detail sheets. The connection between the girders and floor 
beams is to be by standard connections, with angle iron rests 
below the beams. 

Each tier of beams is to be tied where shown in plans by 
j-inch rods, with heads and nuts at each beam, all of which is 
to be thoroughly tightened before the arching is built in be¬ 
tween them. 

The girders of first tier on which the columns rest are to 
be bolted or riveted to the cast-iron base, with separators 
accurately fitting plates, and are to be absolutely true on 
top and bottom surfaces, so as to give an even bearing through¬ 
out. 

Quality of Steel.—All steel used is to be Bessemer or 
Open-Hearth steel. The tensile strength, limit of elasticity, 
and ductility shall be determined from a standard test piece 
cut from the finished material, and planed or turned parallel; 
the piece to have as near | square inch sectional area as 
possible, and elongation to be measured on an original 


THE HOME LIFE INSURANCE BUILDING , N. Y. 97 


length of 8 inches; two test pieces to be 
taken from each heat of rolled finished 
material, one for tension and one for bending. 
The tests are to be made in the presence of a 
representative for the owners, should such be 
deemed, necessary, and all facilities for the 
purpose shall be afforded by the manufacturer. 

Finished bars must be free from injurious 
seams, flaws, or cracks, and have a workman¬ 
like finish, and shall have an ultimate strength 
•of from 58,000 to 60,000 lbs. per square inch; 
elastic limit the ultimate strength; mini¬ 
mum elongation 20 per cent in 8 inches; 
minimum reduction of area of fracture 40 per 
cent. This grade of steel is to bend cold 180 
degrees to a diameter equal to thickness of 
the piece tested without crack or flaw on the 
outside of the bent portion. 

Rivet Steel. —Rivet steel shall have a 
specified tensile strength of 60,000 lbs. per 
square inch, and is to be capable of bending 
double flat without sign of fracture on the 
convex surface of the bend. 

Workmanship. —Inspection of the work 
shall be made at the mill by the owner’s rep¬ 
resentative if deemed necessary, as the work 
progresses, and he shall have the right to 
condemn the whole or any part of the work, 
if in his opinion it is not to the standard 
required by the drawings and these specifica¬ 
tions. 

All workmanship must be first class. The 
rivet-holes for splice plates for abutting 
members shall be accurately placed, so that 
•when members are brought into position 



Building Orig¬ 
inally Started. 


179 ft. 




















































9 8 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS . 


the holes shall be truly opposite before the rivets are 
driven. 

Rivets must completely fill the holes and have full heads 
concentric with the rivets of a height not less than o'.6", the 
diameter of the rivet, and in full contact with the surface, or 
to be countersunk when so required, and machine-driven where- 
ever practicable. 

All abutting surfaces of compression members must be 
planed or turned to an even bearing, so that they shall be in 
perfect contact throughout. 

Separators must accurately fit. 

Built members must, when finished, be true and free from 
twists, kinks, buckles, or open joints between the component 
pieces. 

Framing of Top Story and Spire. —The top story over 
main roof and the spire and the side of the elevator bulkhead 
are to be constructed of tie and angle iron, as shown in general 
on drawings. All to be properly framed and riveted together 
and strongly wind-braced, and firmly secured down to the 
steel frame-work of the building. The work is to include all 
framing around windows and doors, and all requirements by 
other mechanics necessary for them to put up their work com¬ 
plete. The columns supporting the girders and beams of roof 
are to be of steel frame-work, vertical on one side and inclined 
to the pitch of the spire on the other. 

Painting at Works. —The entire steel-work of every de¬ 
scription, including all columns, beams, girders, separators, 
plates, tie-rods, etc., to be cleaned of all scales and dirt, and 
painted with one good coat of best red lead and linseed oil, 
before it is brought to the ground. 

All surfaces inaccessible after assembling must be painted 
two coats before the parts are assembled. 

Sundry Work—Anchors.— All anchors, bolts, clamps, 
straps, dowels, rests for brick-work, etc., required to connect 
the metal construction with masonry, must be furnished and 


THE HOME LIFE INSURANCE BUILDING , N. Y. 


99 


made properly, as required by contractor for masonry and 
stone-work, to suit their relative positions and be of such di¬ 
mensions and sections as directed. Anchors connected with 
beams, framings, etc., are to be securely fastened, care being 
taken that there is no looseness between the parts anchored. 

All anchors, etc., for stone-work to be well galvanized. 

Dimensions figured on the drawings are to be followed in 
all cases in preference to scale measures, and drawings and de¬ 
tails to a larger scale in preference to those at a smaller scale, 
and they must all be verified by contractor ; and if any error in 
dimensions or omissions in detail be discovered, either on the 
drawings or in these specifications, or discrepancies between 
the figures and actual construction in the building, the con¬ 
tractor must immediately report the same to the architects for 
rectification, explanation, or direction, as he will not be allowed 
to take advantage of the same, but shall carry out the details 
as originally intended and required, or as will be essential to 
the proper construction and finish of the work; and any and 
all drawings of details of construction made by the contractor 
for iron and steel-work must be submitted to the architects 
for their examination and approval before being put into exe¬ 
cution. 

Painting at the Building. —After the steel-work is built 
in position and just previous to the building of walls and floor 
arches, or the permanent covering of any of the wrought 
steel-work, the same is to be again thoroughly painted with 
best red lead and pure linseed oil, well laid on. 

The cast-iron, after being thoroughly cleaned, is to be 
painted with a good coat of pure linseed oil previous to de¬ 
livery at the building, and after delivery and approval at the 
building and before being put into position, is to receive a coat 
of red-lead paint as specified above for steel-work. 

All bolts, nuts, etc., or any iron or steel surfaces from 
which the paint may have been removed in putting the work 
in place, are to be painted as above two coats. 


IOO 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 



Fig. 52.—Longitudinal Section of Building, an Additional Story to be 

Added. 


























































































































THE HOME LIFE INSURANCE BUILDING , N. Y. 


IOI 


Cast-iron. —All cast-iron work to be of the best quality, 
and all castings must be sound, true, out of wind, clean, free 
from flaws, holes, or imperfections of every kind, and strictly 
made in accordance with the drawings and directions of the 
architects, to whom all patterns for the ornaments, mouldings, 
etc., must be submitted for approval before casting. 

Lintels. —Cast-iron lintels are to be placed over the doors 
leading to the coal vaults. 

Base for W. I. Smoke Flue. —The base for the wrought- 
iron smoke flue is to be of cast-iron, with flanges, bottom 
plate, etc., as shown on the drawings. The top flange is to be 
planed true, and is to be drilled for f-inch bolts to secure the 
bottom flange of the wrought-iron flue. 

Plates. —Under wall ends of beams, cast-iron plates are to 
be furnished 8 " X 12" X 1" to be set by the mason, but the 
contractor for iron-work in laying the beams is to verify the 
correctness of their position. 

Door to Flue. —The cleaning-out door to the smoke-flue in 
cellar is to be of heavy cast-iron, strongly hinged to a cast-iron 
frame built in the masonry, and provided with approved fast¬ 
ening, etc., complete. The door is to fit absolutely tight. 

Frame to Ash-lift. —The frame to ash-lift in sidewalk is 
to be of cast-iron, strongly made and to fit accurately to the 
soffit of the brick sidewalk arch. The upper flange, rebated 
in the pavement, is to be deeply corrugated or diamond 
roughened. The frame is to be made to receive a wrought- 
iron hinged grating hereafter specified. 

Vault Lights. —Along the Broadway front, as shown on 
plan of first story, provide vault lights with extra heavy frame 
of cast-iron, rebated and provided with all necessary and ap¬ 
proved supports, and stiffening webs, filled with concrete lights, 
and 2-inch diameter approved lenses. Beneath the window 
the lights are to be raised one step with ventilating riser, as 
will be detailed. 


102 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


Similar lights are to be placed in the floor of basement over 
the entrance to boiler-room. 

Curved Skylight. —Provide and place over the rear of 
first story, as shown on plans and longitudinal section, and 
extending across the whole width of building, a curved skylight 
made of heavy cast-iron frames, filled with best cement, light 
lenses 2 \ inches in diameter. The same is to be finished with 
proper copper flashings and have cast-iron gutter at lower end 
of proper pitch, and outlet for leader connection and forming a 
wall-coping. Also provide with interior condensation gutters 
as will be directed and required. 

Alt vault-lights and skylights, etc., must be made and guar¬ 
anteed to be thoroughly water-tight, and be so maintained for 
two years after the completion of the building. 

Coal-hole Covers were shown on plan. Furnish and set 
securely in pavement over coal vaults, two 24-inch round cast- 
iron coal-chute covers, filled with cement lenses, and to be 
provided with rebated frame, chain, fastening staples, etc., 
complete. The cover and frame are to be set flush with the 
sidewalk. 

Sills to Doors on Roof. —Cast-iron sills, corrugated or dia¬ 
mond roughened, are to be placed to the doors leading from 
top floor to roof over rear, and from tank-room in spire to roof 
and to elevator bulkhead. 

Bronze Saddles. —Furnish and put securely and neatly in 
position bronze saddles to the main entrance doors on Broad¬ 
way, as will be approved. 

Cast-iron Mullions, etc.; Rear and Courts. —Between 
the steel girders and columns forming the constructional part 
of the rear wall, and between the girders and beams of each 
story on light-courts are to be cast-iron columns or mullions, 
and moulded cast-iron sills and lintels or cornices, as shown on 
elevations. All are to be cast straight and smooth of full uni¬ 
form thickness throughout, and to have all requisite lugs, 
brackets, connecting flanges, etc., cast on as directed, and 


THE HOME LIFE INSURANCE BUILDING, N. Y. 103 

strictly conform to the detail drawings to be furnished, and be 
securely bolted to the girders, etc. 

Columns to Elevator Shaft— The columns to elevator 
shaft on various stories are to be of cast-iron, cast true and 
finished smooth in plain parts, and the carved and decorated 
parts to be sharp and hand-finished, as required. On first 
floor the columns are to be arranged to receive the marble 
pilasters shown on drawings. The necessary lugs to connect 
with floor and veiling beams are to be cast on. Models of the 
mouldings and carved ornaments are to be submitted to the 
architects for approval before casting. 

Sills to Elevator Doors, etc. —The facias around elevator 
shaft at line of floors at each story are to be finished with cast 
and wrought-iron panels, to match the stair-work, and cast-iron 
sills and soffit mouldings at ceilings, all as detailed. 

Stairs. —The stairs throughout the building are to be of 
iron construction, and finished in the most substantial, secure, 
and highly artistic manner, as per plans, sections, and full- 
sized drawings. All to be framed with substantial cast and 
wrought iron carriages, strings, braces, brackets, etc. The 
under-side and all exposed parts to be moulded, panelled, 
and thoroughly finished. The wall string to main stairs up 
to third story to be made “ open ” for marble base of wainscot¬ 
ing ; above this story to top of building the strings are to be 
closed or panel-box strings. The outside string to be closed 
throughout. The risers to be solid and panelled. All to be 
properly lugged and flanged to receive the marble treads and 
platforms to be furnished by the contractor for marble-work, and 
the joints neatly and accurately fitted and bolted and fastened. 
The facias around stair wells and the sofifit mould are to be 
made to match the stairs. The rail to main stairs from first 
story to top story is to consist of a polished bronze or brass 
2j-inch diameter rail. The rail to be supported on square 
newels and finished with carved bronze or brass plates at ends. 
The private stairs are to have similar rail 2 inches in diameter. 


104 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 

All requisite bends and casements to be carefully formed with 
easy sweeps and curves. The balusters or supports to hand 
rails are to be of decorated cast-iron in main stairs up to third 
story, artistically hand-finished, and the balance of the balus¬ 
trade to main stairs and the whole of the private stairs to be 
of wrought-iron—all as shown on section and detailed. The 
spandrils to the first story and basement main stairs to be 
filled with cast-iron panel work, smoothly finished and strongly 
and neatly put together. 

The stairs from store to basement and from basement to 
cellar or engine-room to be of circular pattern with centre newel, 
cast-iron treads and platform corrugated or perforated, as may 
be directed, and open strings and risers and string wrought-iron 
railing, and hand-rail, and cast-iron newels, all of neat finish and 
substantial construction, as directed. The ladder to tank room 
in spire is to be made of wrought-iron with double run treads and 
wrought-iron bar hand rails. Similar ladder to be furnished 
from cellar to engineer’s water-closet. 

Do all drilling for marble setters and furnish the screws to 
secure the marble treads, etc., to the iron work. 

Guards to the Elevator Shaft. —The elevator shaft from 
the basement to the top story is to be enclosed with ornamen¬ 
tal wrought iron fret-work, as shown on the section, and as will 
be detailed. All is to be executed in the best artistic manner. 
The decorated portions of the first and second story screens to 
have hammered leaf and scroll-work. The doors throughout 
are to be wrought-iron, strongly framed, hung on approved 
anti-friction sheaves and steel-ways, and are to have approved 
large and strong latch fastenings. The elevator nearest stairs 
is to be a freight elevator, and the doors are to be arranged to 
open the full width of elevator car. 

Electro-Plating. —All the iron-work about the main stairs 
and elevator guards from start to third story, including risers, 
strings, balusters, elevator posts, etc., complete, are to be 


THE HOME LIFE INSURANCE BUILDING , N. Y. 10$ 

heavily electroplated in best manner, in brass, copper, or bronze, 
as will be more fully directed by the architects. 

Partition to Cellar Stairs.— On basement story, the 
cellar stairs are to be enclosed by a solid wrought-iron screen 
from floor to ceiling. The screen is to be made of heavy 
crimped iron, secured to T-iron uprights and horizontal bars 
dividing it into panels. The door in this screen is also to be 
of wrought-iron, strongly hinged and secured with approved 
lock and spring catch. The door is to be made to fit abso¬ 
lutely tight. All to be done in the neatest and strongest 
manner, as will be approved. 

Main Entrance Doors. —The doors to main entrance are 
to be hinged in three folds, to fold back against front pier, and 
are to be constructed of best bronze with panels and decorated 
mouldings. The doors are to be hung on strong bronze frame 
firmly secured to stone jambs, and are to be hinged in 
strongest manner and finished in the highest artistic style. 
Each fold to have top and bottom bronze bolts, and the doors 
are to be provided with best-made Yale & Towne bronze lock, 
etc., complete. All as will be approved. 

Wrought-iron Boiler Flue. —The iron smoke stack, to be 
constructed in the brick flue as the building progresses, is to 
extend from the cast-iron shoe, specified above, in basement to 
eighteen inches above the top of chimney over roof, and is to be 
made of best wrought-iron f inches thick, stiffened by f" X 3 " 
bands. The sections of which the flue is to be constructed 
are to be of such lengths as can be readily handled, and are in 
no case to exceed 20 feet. 

The ends of such section are to have 3" X 3 " X angles 
riveted on, through which the several sections will be tightly 
bolted or riveted together, and the joints between the sections 
are to be gas-tight, and all is to be put together as will be 
directed and approved. The stack is to be kept in a vertical 
position by wrought-iron bars built in the masonry flue, but 
care is to be taken in locating the bars, that they do not come 


106 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 

in contact with any joint or projecting stiffener, and that the 
stack has free play to expand. 

Furring. —The panelled ceiling of entrance hall and the 
panelled ceiling and cornices of the main office are to be furred 
with angle irons i J" X i spaced about twelve inches between 
centres, approximately to the shape of the plaster mouldings, 
etc., all complete, as required by plasterer, for the attachment 
of the wire cloth or metal lathing. All furring is to be secured 
to the walls and suspended and secured to the beams, girders, 
and brackets in the most substantial manner, as approved. 

Floors Beneath Elevators. —The floor beneath the two 
elevators stopping at first story and the floor beneath elevator 
stopping at basement are to be furred down two feet below 
the finished floors in a substantial manner with tee irons, 
secured to under side of beams and in walls. Floor over these 
tees with wrought-iron plates firmly secured to them, to make 
a substantial floor. 

Skylight Over Main Office and Elevators. —Inclined flat 
skylights are to be provided over the main office ceiling beneath 
light-court and over the elevator shaft. The core of the bars 
to be made of T’-shape iron of ample and approved strength, 
and must be enclosed by cold-rolled copper, 20 ounces to the 
square foot, to afford a support to the glass and form double 
condensation gutters. They are to be glazed with % in. rough 
plate or ribbed glass laid in white-lead putty in best manner. 
Along the lower edge of skylight over main office, provide a 
substantial cast-iron gutter with proper pitch and outlet for 
leader connection, and to flash into the wall as shown and 
form a coping. Beneath this skylight is to be placed a strong 
wire screen, supported on strong wrought-iron frame made in 
movable panels securely put up, as will be approved. 

Glass Under Skylight. —Beneath the above skylight in 
main office is to be a ceiling-light, of crackled and other glass, 
to be provided in a separate contract; but the contractor for 
iron-work is to furnish and put up the wrought-iron angle 


THE HOME LIFE INSURANCE BUILDING , N. Y. IO J 

frames to support the glass, as shown on ceiling plan. All to 
be done in the strongest manner, as approved. 

Skylights in Top Story. —Over the stairs to top story is 
to be placed a best-make turret ventilating skylight of copper, 
with vertical sashes on sides and ends. The sashes are to be 
hung on pivots on two sides. All to be constructed in the 
most substantial manner. The skylight is to be constructed 
of hollow copper bars, provided with gutters, to connect with 
cross-gutters at upper and lower sides; the gutters at lower 
sides to be provided with indirect openings for the escape of 
condensed moisture, and at the same time be perfectly weather- 
tight. The sashes are to be provided with approved fasten¬ 
ings and apparatus for keeping same open at any angle. The 
glazing is to be done in the best manner with £-inch thick best 
quality ribbed plate glass of uniform tint. 

All the above skylights must be made and guaranteed to 
be thoroughly weather-tight, and be so maintained for two 
years after the completion of the building. 

Floor - lights. —Floor-lights are to be furnished where 
shown on plans of first and second stories. All to be made of 
heavy wrought-iron frames, strongly supported and filled with 
one-inch thick hammered 12-inch square glass, or as shown 
and directed, the glass to be bedded in white-lead putty. 

Window Guards. —Window guards of round f-incli bars, 
set 4^ inch, on centres, are to be secured to the iron posts or 
mullions of rear in the first-story mezzanine and second-story. 
All to be framed out and put up in best secure manner. 

Grating Doors Over Ash-lift. —On sidewalk over ele¬ 
vator, or lift for ashes, furnish and set complete a pair of 
wrought-iron grating doors, hung on the cast-iron flanged and 
rebated frame before specified, with strong hinges and pro¬ 
vided with proper fastenings, and ratchet to keep open, and 
with safety-guards. 

Platform Over Elevators. —A strong wrought-iron grat- 


io8 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


ing platform is to be built in the elevator shaft just below the 
machinery overhead. 

Clamps. —Furnish the necessary clamps of wrought-iron to 
the carpenter to secure the wooden sleepers to the iron beams, 
as will be required. 

Jobbing. —Do all cutting, drilling, and fitting of iron-work, 
and furnish and insert all requisite bolts, holdfasts, etc., re¬ 
quired by other mechanics. 

General. —The contractor is to remove from the premises 
all rubbish arising from his operations as the work proceeds 
and at completion of same. He must comply with all munici¬ 
pal or corporation ordinances and the laws and regulations 
relating to buildings in the city of New York. He will be 
liable and responsible for any damage to life, limb, or property 
that may arise or occur to any party whatever, either from 
accident or owing to his negligence or that of his employes 
during the operations of constructing or completing the works 
herein specified. 

Should any difference of opinion or dispute arise between 
the contracting parties in relation to the true meaning of the 
plans, drawings, or these specifications, reference is to be made 
to the architects, whose decision on all such points shall be 
final and conclusive. No additional work will be allowed 
unless ordered by the architects in writing, and the order 
countersigned by the agent of the company ; and no bill for 
work so ordered will be approved by the architects unless it is 
rendered immediately upon completion and approval of the 
said work. 

No signs of any description will be allowed to be placed on 
or about the building or premises. 


CHAPTER VI. 


THE HAVEMEYER BUILDING. 


The Havemeyer Building, designed by Geo. B. Post, archi¬ 
tect, situated at Cortland, Dey, and Church streets, New York, 



Fig. 53. —Havemeyer Building, N. Y. 

towers fifteen stories, 193 feet including roof-house, above the 
level of the street; and is one of the most imposing and attrac¬ 
tive of these majestic modern structures. 

109 









IIO 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


A building 60 by 215 feet and with its sides to the free outer 
air of the public streets gave room for the exercise of architec¬ 
tural imagination and invention, such as is seldom found in 
the business section of the city, where the transformation from 
low to high buildings is in progress. 

All that the modern art of architecture and the modern skill 
in building craft could do to produce a building perfect in all 
its appointments has been employed to produce the Havemeyer 
Building. 

Lime-stone, terra-cotta, brick and stone work, with wrought- 
iron riveted columns and steel beams, were the materials 
chiefly employed in its construction, and it is thoroughly fire¬ 
proof throughout. The floors, hall-walls, and stairs are of tile 
and marble, and fire-proof materials were used wherever pos¬ 
sible. 

Seven improved elevators are situated in the rear at the 
centre of the building, two of which are used as express eleva¬ 
tors. 

The roof floor is fitted as a restaurant and cafe, with open 
roof in warm weather and promenade, where superb views of 
the bay and surrounding country can be had from this height. 

Floor Plan. —By referring to the floor plan of the build¬ 
ing, Fig. 55, the arrangement of the floor area into offices, 
corridors, stairway, and elevators is shown. The longest front 
faces Church Street, the smallest Cortlandt Street, and the op¬ 
posite side Dey Street. The rear is also open to the air. 

An important feature has been introduced above the 
floor, in the way of extra light, secured by large windows in 
the street side and rear and glass windows in the partition 
enclosing the hall, making every room very bright and at¬ 
tractive. 

The ground or main floor of the building has entrances 
running through from each street at the end of the corri¬ 
dor, with an additional stairway at each end connecting 
the basement and first floor. There is also a cellar in 


7HE HAVEMEYER BUILDING. 


Ill 


addition to the basement below 
floor plan is divided into 22 
offices, about i $'. 6 " X in 

size. 

Wrought-iron Boiler Flue. 

—The boiler flue, 40 inches in 
diameter, is situated outside the 
building at the left side of the 
elevators, encased with brick the 
entire height of building. The 
brick shaft is 8'.6" outside diam¬ 
eter; a 24-inch wall is carried up 
100 feet, a 20-inch wall 36 feet; 
then a 16-inch wall the remain¬ 
ing height, making a total of 197 
feet from curb level to top of 
chimney. The circular wall of 
elevators is of brick and built 
up to within 4 feet of this total 
height. (See specifications and 
Fig. 61.) 

Beam Plan. —We have in 
this example a variation of the 
skeleton construction ; the walls 
simply carry their own weight 
and are not supported by girders 
and columns, as in the skeleton 
frame. The columns start in 
the walls at the lower story; 
when they reach the top of the 
building several feet intervene, 
as shown in the transverse sec¬ 
tion, at columns D and K, Fig. 55. 


the street level. Each 



Fig. 54.—Typical Floor Plan, 
Havemeyer Building. 


The thickness of the rear brick wall in cellar 56 in., basement 
48 in., ground story 44 in., 1st story 40 in., 2d story 36 in., 3d 











112 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


story 32 in., 4th story 32 in., 5th story 28 in., 6th to and in¬ 
cluding 9th story 24 in., 10th and 
nth story 20 in., 12th story 16 
in. The thickness of the front 
walls are: cellar 60 in., basement 
56 in., ground floor 52 in., 1st 
story 44 in., 2d and 3d story 40 
in., 4th story 39 to 36 in., 5th to 
and including 10th story 36 in., 
nth story 32m., 12th story 30 
and 28 in., 13th story and above 
28 in. 

By comparing the floor plan, 
Fig. 54, with the beam plan, Fig. 
55. it will be seen that the col¬ 
umns are placed in each parti¬ 
tion ; between the columns these 
partitions in most cases rest 
directly upon the girders. In 
calculating the floor loads the 
beams are not required to take 
this partition load, but it fre¬ 
quently happens that partitions 
are changed to suit tenants; it 
is therefore necessary that the 
beams be calculated to carry the 
total dead and live load. 

The beams and girders being 
of steel are designed to sup¬ 
port 200 lbs. per square foot of 
area, which includes dead and 
live load ; the dead load equals 
about 100 lbs. per square foot. 



Fig. 55.—Beam Plan. 


The girders on the B line of column are 12" X 32 lbs. and 
12" X 40 lbs. per foot I-beams the same principle being used 







































































THE HAVEMEYER BUILDING. 


1 13 


throughout except at columns D and K , where lateral brac¬ 
ing is used (see the transverse section, Fig. 58, and details, 



Fig. 56.—Roof Plan. Fig. 57.—Foundation Plan. 

Fig. 59); here two 12-in. channels 20 lbs. per foot are placed 
side by side. 





































































































ii4 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


The floor beams are 9 inches deep and from 21 to 27 lbs. 
per foot, placed from 3 ft. 10 in. to 4 ft. 5 in. centre and fast¬ 
ened to the 12-in. beam girders (see detail of column, Fig. 60, 
where the beam connection is shown). The columns are sepa¬ 
rated 16 ft. ij in. from B to C, C to D , etc. From the street 
line (the dotted line shown in Fig. 55) to the centre of columns 
By C, D , E, F , Gy etc., is 4 ft. 4 in.; from D column to ^the 
column immediately in the rear on the D column line is 13 ft. 
4 in.; to the next column 15 ft. 5 in.; to the next column on D 
line at rear wall is 9 ft. 5 in.; then to the area wall line 4 ft. o in. 
There are heavy anchors secured to the column at the lower 
floor levels, and built into the masonry as the work progresses, 
thus completely tying the column walls together; where the 
walls separate a few feet at the upper floor levels, short pieces 
of 12' X 32 lbs. per foot I-beams were used, not only for 
anchorage, but to support the channels against the masonry, 
which in turn support the wall arches. 

Each bay of floor beams were connected by one row of i-in. 
diameter tie-rods, extending from wall facing street to rear 
walls, completely tying the masonry and metal frame together. 

The transverse section also shows the depth of the founda¬ 
tions and their breadth. 

The brick-work is about 24 ft. 6 in. below the ground floor 
level, and 9 ft. thick at the lowest point which rests upon heavy 
bed stone, then 6 " X 18" planking, 2 layers thick, then con¬ 
crete and piling. The foundations for the columns are built in 
like manner. 

The foundation plan, Fig. 57, gives the position and arrange¬ 
ment of these columns and wall piers, also showing the portion 
of the rear wall which has a continuous foundation. The 
heavy continuous wall on the outside of the plate is the retain¬ 
ing wall of the street; the small piers between this wall and the 
piers of the long front are foundations for star columns made 
of four angles, back to back, supporting the basement floor 
under sidewalk, and a small wall from basement level to side¬ 
walk. 


THE HAVEMEYER BUILDING. 


115 


[f-in. diam¬ 


eter for the i-in. rods, 
and i-in. diameter for 
the f-in. rods. 

The sway-bracing 
was put in place and 
tightened as the work 
progressed. The detail, 


To overcome the tendency to vibrate in the metal frame 
work of the structure when the work is in advance of the 
masonry and to keep the columns plumb, sway braces were 
introduced at the D and 
K line of column, as 
shown on the transverse 
section, Fig. 58, (not 
lateral zvind braces , as 
some have supposed ), 
made of if-in. diameter 
rods carried from the 
basement to the twelfth 
story ; where they were 
made of i-in. diameter, 
and f-in. diameter in 
the thirteenth story. 

Each rod was made 
in two sections and each 
section had the ends 
upset for the eyes and 
the screw ends. 

Turn-buckles were 
also provided for all the 
rods. The upset screw 
ends of the rods were 
1 f-in. diameter for the 
1 f-in. rods, 


II 


1 

i 


X 

1 x 

\ 


X 1 

X 



X 1 

X 



x I 

X 

\ 


X 1 

X 

X 


X 

X' 



x 

X 



X 

1 1 X 



x 1 

1 X 



XI 

?!;- 



X 1 

I ^ 



x| 

1>' 



XI1 


j 


xi 

lx 



xl 

mm ; 


J 

:l._ m 


B IB 


Fig. 58. 


-Transverse Section at Columns 
D and K . 

Fig. 59, shows the manner of connecting the bracing to the 
channel girder and columns. 






























































SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


116 


To bind the masonry, three lines of continuous tie-bars 
were placed in the centre of the exterior walls, of 4" X }" flat 
wrought-iron bars, with welded ends and bored for i^-in. diam¬ 
eter rods 16 in. long acting as a spear; the tie-bars were laid 
flat, while the spear was placed vertical in the masonry. 

These tie-bars were placed at the 3d story, nth story, and 
13th story floor levels. 



Column Detail. —The detail, Fig. 60, shows the manner of 
connecting the columns to each other and to the girders and 
floor beams of the building. In connecting the girders to the 
column one 6 " X 4" X i " angle, 9 in. long was used and one 
$" X 4" X i" angle 6 in. long for the 9-in. beams. The girder 
and beam were supported in addition to the above angle-knees 
by 4" X 4" X i" angle seats as shown. 

The connection plates between the columns are of wrought- 
iron 1 in. thick, and when the upper columns are one or two 
inches less than the column below, two plates are used. To 
secure the upper with the lower column angle-knees are placed 
on each side and riveted through angles and plates. 

The rivets in the body of the column as well as at the joints 
are 1 in. in diameter for columns with four cover plates (two 
on each side) and over, the thickness of plates being over f- in. 
thick; | in. diameter rivet for plate £ in. thick, and f-in. diam¬ 
eter rivets for plates less than £ in. thick. 











































THE HAVEMEYER BUILDING. 


II 7 

In connecting the columns with the cast-iron base plates , the 
same general arrangement is observed as in connecting the 
columns to each other, as shown in Fig. 60; in place of rivets, 
bolts are used. 

The base plates are 4' x 4' and 2 ft. 6 in. height, the ribs 



Fig. 60. 


are as shown on the figure; the heavier columns have ij in. 
and the lighter columns have i^-in. ribs. 

The size and number of plates in a few of the lighter and 
heavier columns are given in the Rowing table, with their 
loads : 

























































































118 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


BOX COLUMNS—HAVEMEYER BUILDING. 
Columns Marked C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L. 



Length. 

Outside Plates. 

Webs. 

Angles. 

Load, 


















Tons. 


Ft. 

In. 

No. 

Size in In. 

No. 

Size in In. 

No. 

Size in In. 


Basement . 

9 

3 

2 

i 5 Xf 

2 

i 3 ix| 

4 

4 X 4 X 1 

150 

Ground floor.. 

16 

0 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

« 4 

4 4 

139 

ist story . 

t 4 

3 

4 4 

14x1 

4 4 

9 iXf 


3 i X 3i X i 

128.75 

2d “ . 

r 1 

9 

4 i 

i 3 Xf 

4 4 

9 ix| 

4 4 

3 X 3 Xi 

118 

3 d “ . 

a 

i 4 

4 4 

% 

<4 

44 

« 4 

t 4 

4 4 

108.26 

4th “ . 

4» 

i i 

4 4 

i 3 Xi 

“ 

9 iXi 

4 4 

4 4 

98 

5th “ . 

t ( 

4 4 

4 * 

4 4 

4 4 

i 4 

4 4 


S8 

6th “ . 

i < 

4 4 

4 4 

i 3 Xf 

4 4 

9 ^Xf 

4 4 

4 4 

73 

7th “ . 

* 4 

< 4 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

4 t 

t 4 

68.18 

8 th “ . 

* < 

4 t 

« 4 

i3Xi 

4 4 

9iXf 

4 4 

« 4 

58.39 

9 th “ . 

4 4 

a 

( 4 

4 4 

4 ( 

6 fX± 

4 4 

4 . 

48.6 

10 th “ . 

l 4 

(( 

4 4 

<4 

44 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

38.8 

nth “ . 

13 

0 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

* 4 

4 4 

28.9 

12 th “ . 

I I 

9 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

19 .t 4 

13 th “ . 

4 4 

t < 

4 4 

4 4 

( 4 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

9-36 


i-in. diameter rivets were used to the ist story, £-in. to 2d story, f-in. to roof. 


Columns Marked M2. 


Cellar . 

9 

O 

4 

I5XI 

Basement . 

9 

3 

4 

« 

Ground floor.. 

16 

0 

1 2 

i 1 5Xf 




( 2 

( x 5Xf 

ist story . 

14 

3 

4 

i5Xf 

2 d “ . 

11 

9 

4 

4 4 

3d “ . 

4 4 

4 4 

4 

i4Xf 

4 th “ . 

4 4 

44 

j 2 
( 2 

i “ 

( MX* 

5th “ . 

4 4 

4 4 

4 

4 4 

6 th “ . 

4 4 

44 

2 

MXl 

7 th “ . 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

MX| 

8 th “ . 

4 4 

4 4 

44 

MXf 

9th “ . 

4 4 

4 4 

44 

J3Xf 

10 th “ . 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

13X4 

nth “ ...... 

13 

O 

4 4 

1 3 Xf 

nth “ . 

i I 

9 

4 4 

l3Xf 

13 th “ . 

I I 

9 

4 4 

\ 

LL 


\ 2 
( “ 

11X 1 
uxH 

f 4 

4 X 5 Xy§ 1 


f “ 

11 X 1 

) t( 

“ i 

3 15 

] “ 

11 XtI 

f 



t “ 

Itfxn 

/ „ 

44 


f “ 

nfxt 

J 


j 21 


nfxf 

“IXU 

f ,< 
f 

-fc. 

X 

X 

•Hco 

297.6 

4 

ioXf 

4 4 

4X4XI 

274-75 

4 4 

9iXf 

4 4 

3iX3iXi 

252 

(2 

“ 

s 


229.4 

t “ 

9iXf 


4 

“ 

4 4 

4 4 

206.9 

4 ‘ 

9iX ! 

% 4 

4 4 

184.69 

2 

9iX! 

4 1 


162.46 

4 4 

9iX| 

4 4 

4 4 

140.42 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

X 

cn 

X 

118.45 

4 4 

9iXi 

4 4 

4 4 

96.71 

■ 4 4 

9^Xf 

4 4 

it 

75 

4 4 

9iXi 

4 4 

4 4 

53-5 

44 

64Xi 

4 4 

4 4 

32.oS 

1 


i*in. diameter rivets were used to the 4th story, f-in. to 9th story, f-in. to roof 





























































































THE HAVEMEYER BUILDING. 


119 

The following ideal specification covers fully all the re¬ 
quirements of the building : 

Specification of the Wrought, Cast-Iron, and Steel Work , etc., 
for the Havemeyer Building. 

Conditions. —The drawings and the specifications are in¬ 
tended to co-operate; but any work shown on the drawings, 
and not particularly described in the specifications, and any 
work evidently necessary to the complete finish of the build¬ 
ing, as specified or shown, is to be done by the contractor 
without extra charge, the same as if it were both specified and 
shown. 

The contractor is to comply with the corporation ordi¬ 
nances, the State, and other laws, and is to be liable for all 
penalties and all damages to life and limb that may occur 
owing to his negligence or that of his employes during the 
erection of the building. 

No extra work will be allowed unless ordered by the archi¬ 
tect in writing. No bill for extra work so ordered will be 
approved by the architect, unless it is rendered immediately 
upon completion of the said work. 

Sub-contracts are to be submitted to the architect for his 
approval, and in no case will any work be accepted furnished 
by sub-contractors not approved of. 

The architect will furnish drawings exhibiting the work to 
be done by the contractor, and will also furnish detailed draw¬ 
ings for all moulded, carved, and ornamental work; and any 
work made without or not in strict conformity with such draw¬ 
ings, or differing from the requirements of the drawings and 
the specifications, will be rejected, and must be removed and 
replaced by work in conformity with the requirements of the 
drawings and the specification, and all work injured or de¬ 
stroyed thereby must be made good at the contractor’s ex¬ 
pense. 

Shop drawings, copies of the architect’s drawings fur¬ 
nished, templets, reverse templets, patterns, models, and all 


120 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


necessary measurements at the building are to be made by 
the contractor at his own expense. 

Figured dimensions on the drawings are to be followed in 
all cases in preference to scale-measures. 

The contractor must procure all necessary permits in con¬ 
nection with his work and pay all fees for the same. 

The owner, through the architect, reserves the right to an¬ 
nul and cancel the contract in case the contractor neglects or 
refuses to remove rejected work and to replace the same as 
above specified, and according to the instructions of the archi¬ 
tect, within a reasonable time after having been notified. 

A schedule in detail of the prices on which the contract is 
based is to be furnished to the architect on signing the con¬ 
tract, which schedule will be the basis for all payments on ac¬ 
count of the contract. 

The contractor must properly protect his work from injury 
until the final completion of the building and the acceptance 
of the sams. 

Any damage done to work of other contractors by the con¬ 
tractor, his sub-contractors, and employes will be made good 
at the contractor’s expense. 

Time of Completion.— All the work is to be completely 
finished on or before the 1st day of July, 1892; the entire 
second tier of beams must be set on or before the 1st day of 
August, 1891 ; the roof tier of beams must be set on or before 
the 4th day of January, 1892, and all the staircases and ele¬ 
vator fronts must be finished on or before the 1st day of 
March, 1892. 

The work included in this specification must be prepared 
and erected in its various stages at such times as may be 
necessary to complete the same and parts of the same at the 
times mentioned, and without interfering with or delaying the 
progress of the work of other contractors. 

The contractor is to provide all necessary night and over¬ 
time work without extra charge. 


THE HAVEMEYER BUILDING. 


121 


Should any delay occur in the progress of the work in¬ 
cluded in this specification, or should the work of other con¬ 
tractors be delayed on account of delay in the iron-work or on 
account of replacing or altering defective or rejected work, the 
contractor is to pay to Theo. A. Havemeyer, Esq., the sum of 
two hundred and fifty dollars ($250.00) as liquidated damages 
for each and every day that the work is delayed, and for each 
and every day that the iron-work may be unfinished and un¬ 
completed after the 1st day of July, 1892. 

Payments will be made only on the certificate of the 
architect. 

On or about the first day of each month a certificate will be 
given by the architect for a payment on account of the con¬ 
tract of eigty-five per cent (85$) of the value of the work fur¬ 
nished and put up at the building, provided the contractor has 
made application over his signature on blanks furnished by the 
architect on or before the 25th day of the preceding month, 
and that a schedule has been furnished, as before specified. 

A certificate for the balance will be given by the architect 
upon the completion of the contract, in conformity with the 
drawings and the specification, application having been made 
as before specified. 

Certificates will be given by the architect, at his option, on 
or about the 1st day of each month for a payment on account 
of the contract of sixty-five per cent (65^) of the value of fin¬ 
ished work, set aside and stored as hereinafter provided, appli¬ 
cations for the same having been made as before specified. 

No certificate will be given in case any work is furnished 
not in strict conformity with the drawings and specifications, 
and until defective work has been removed and replaced as 
specified, and to the satisfaction of the architect. 

Any certificate given or any payment made on account of 
the contract for work furnished and erected in the building, or 
for materials finished and set aside, does not act as an ac¬ 
ceptance of any materials or work which may subsequently be 


12 2 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


found to be defective by reason of existing defects at the time 
such certificate is given or payment made, or defects arising 
from accidental injury or otherwise, until the completion of 
the contract. 

The contractor must replace all such defective work on 
which payments have been made before another certificate 
will be issued. 

Sub-contract. —The contract for the iron-work will be 
made at the option of the owner, a sub-contract to the gen¬ 
eral contract for the erection of the building, and all payments 
in the manner described will be made by the general con¬ 
tractor, and the contractor will be liable to the general con¬ 
tractor for the proper performance of the contract, and will 
not be relieved of any of the obligations herein specified. 

Materials and Workmanship.—All materials, of every 
kind and description, are to be of the very best quality; and all 
work necessary to the complete finish of the iron-work, as 
shown on the drawings and as directed by this specification, is 
to be executed in the most thorough, substantial, neat, and 
workmanlike manner, to the entire satisfaction of the owner 
and the architect, to whom every facility is to be given by the 
contractor for inspecting the work as it progresses. All tests, 
as required by the law, are to be made, the contractor paying 
all expenses. 

The contractor is to furnish all necessary materials and 
labor, and is to provide all tools, derricks, scaffolding, planks, 
runs, horses, and all necessary mechanical appliances for prop¬ 
erly prosecuting the work. All necessary freights, cartages, 
and transportation and all handling of materials must be paid 
by the contractor. 

Delivery and Storage. —The contractor is to commence 
delivery and erect his work as soon as the building is ready to 
receive the same, and must continue delivering and erecting as 
rapidly as possible, without interfering with or delaying the 
work of other contractors. 


THE HAVEMEYER BUILDING. 


123 


After the second tier of beams has been set the iron-work 
of the various floors must be carried up in advance of the 
mason work, so that one tier of beams and two tiers of pillars 
or columns are set ahead of the mason-work, story to story. 

The site and the building are not to be used by the contrac¬ 
tor for the storage of materials. 

All finished work set aside ready for delivery, on which a 
payment on account of the contract is desired, is to be stored 
and set aside on premises properly housed and protected at the 
expense of the contractor. 

A lease of these premises is to be executed by the contrac¬ 
tor to Theo. A. Havemeyer, Esq., for the time the finished 
work remains stored therein. The contractor is to be liable for 
all injury to the finished work when so stored. 

The contractor at his expense must insure against loss or 
damage by fire all finished work so stored, and assign the poli¬ 
cies of insurance to Theo. A. Havemeyer, Esq., as security for 
the advance that may have been made thereon, and also for the 
performance by the contractor of his agreement to repair such 
damage. 

The contractor is to keep the policies in force until the 
finished work so stored shall be delivered at the building. 

Wrought-iron. —All wrought-iron must be tough, fibrous, 
and of uniform quality, straight and smooth, free from cinder 
pockets or injurious flaws, buckles, blisters, or cracks. The ten¬ 
sile strength is to be 48,000 to 50,000 pounds per square inch 
of section, with an elastic limit of 24,000 to 26,000 pounds per 
square inch of section; the elongation not less than 12 per 
cent. The higher limits will be required for the rivets, angle 
plates, and knees. 

All wrought-iron must, when cold, bend without cracking; 
through 180 degrees to a curve whose diameter is not over 
twice the thickness of the specimen. When nicked and bent 
its fracture must be nearly fibrous, showing but few crystalline 
spots. 


124 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


Steel. —All steel is to be mild, and must be of uniform 
quality, straight and smooth, free from flaws, cracks, or other 
defects. The tensile strength is to be 60,000 pounds per square 
inch of section, with an elastic limit of 28,000 to 30,000 pounds 
per square inch of section ; the elongation not less than 20 
per cent. 

All steel must be capable when cold of bending double, 
flat, without sign of fracture on the convex surface of the bend. 

Cast-Iron. —All castings must be of the very best quality, 
tough, gray iron, free from defects. No scrap-iron is to be 
used or mixed with cast-iron. 

All the castings are to be true, smooth, and straight, of a 
uniform thickness of metal, and must be entirely free from 
blow-holes, honey-combs, cinders, seam-marks, and other de¬ 
fects. 

Tests. —All materials used in all stages of manufacture 
shall be subject to full inspection and test by the architect, 
and the contractor is to supply all requisite facilities for such 
inspection and tests without charge. The architect shall have 
full power to reject any of the materials or parts, if in his judg¬ 
ment such materials are not in conformity with the specifica¬ 
tions, at any time before the final completion and acceptance 
of the work; and his decision shall be final. All samples and 
specimens are to be prepared by the contractor, and all tests 
are to be made at his expense. Such tests will be under the 
direction of the architect, who shall be the sole judge of how 
many are necessary, and in what manner they shall be made. 

Construction of Work. —Where work is specified as “ good 
and sufficient,” or where the work is not fully explained by the 
drawings, the contractor shall in all cases, before the execution 
of the work, submit to the architect for his approval a detailed 
specification for the same. The architect shall be at liberty to 
alter and amend such specification, if in his opinion the work 
as described is not of materials, proportions, and workmanship 
best adapted to the purpose. 


THE HAVEMEYER BUILDING. 


125 


The minimum weights and sizes of all girders, beams, pil¬ 
fers, columns, rods, bolts, rivets, etc., are shown on the drawings 
and given in this specification ; and any materials delivered at 
the shops or at the building which are not of the prescribed 
weights and sizes will be rejected by the architect, to whom 
every facility is to be given by the contractor for the purpose 
of examining the work, both at the shops and at the building; 
the contractor is to do all necessary handling and weighing 
without extra charge. 

The screw threads of all rods and bolts are to be carefully 
cut, so that all portions of the same will be formed of solid 
iron. No bolts or rods are to be pieced or welded together. 

The ends of the bars and rods used for bracing are to have 
the screw ends for the turn-buckles upset, and all threads are 
to be carefully cut. 

Nuts are in all cases to be extra heavy. Sufficient washers of 
proper sizes and shapes are to be provided. All rods used for 
braces, counters, and sway-rods are to have turn-buckles. All 
eye-bars are to have the ends upset, and are to have the pin and 
bolt holes bored. All pin and bolt holes are to be accurately 
bored at right angles to the axis of the members, and must 
not be more than one-thirty-second of an inch larger than the 
diameter of the pin or bolt. All holes in cast-iron are to be 
bored. 

All riveted work is to be done in the very best manner. 
Rivet-holes may be drilled or punched, and must not be more 
than one-sixteenth of an inch larger than the diameter of the 
rivet; if punched, the work must be carefully done with well- 
proportioned punches and dies, so that the holes shall be 
straight, clean, and sharp, and that the rivets can be driven 
without drifting , which zvill not be allowed. When the pieces 
to be joined together are assembled, the holes through the 
parts for each rivet shall be strictly in line and normal to the 
surfaces ; if a slight misfit should occur the holes must be truly 
reamed to the required size and larger rivets must be used. 


126 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


After the riveting is done, the pieces joined together shall be 
closely in contact throughout, and the rivets shall be tight; 
fill the holes perfectly and have full semi-spherical heads con¬ 
centric to the rivet-holes. Rivet-heads are to be countersunk 
wherever necessary for bearings. All rivets are to be made of 
the very best refined iron. The pitch of rivets shall not exceed 
6 inches, nor be less than three diameters of the rivet. Rivets 
f-in., -J-in., and i-in. diameter will be used. Except for bars 
less than 2 % in. wide, the distance between the edges of any 
piece and the centre of the rivet-hole must not be less than 
in.; where practicable it shall be at least twice the diameter of 
the rivet. All joints in riveted work must be fully spliced, and 
the ends before splicing must be dressed straight and true, so 
that there will be no open joints. 

All the beam framing throughout is to be riveted, and the 
fastenings to the pillars and columns are to be riveted. All 
the pillars and columns are to be riveted, pitch to be 4 in., and 
in all cases the five end rivets are to have the minimum pitch. 
All brackets and lugs on the pillars and columns are to be 
riveted. 

Box girders are to be riveted in the same manner; the 
plates for the flanges and webs are to be riveted together by 
means of angle-irons; pitch of rivets is to be 4 in. Heavy 
cast-iron filling pieces, with lugs and flanges, fitting accurately 
the flanges and webs, are to be placed at the ends and 4 feet 
apart, through which the webs are to be boited together with 
f-in. bolts, not over 6 in. between centres. 

For the bearings of the beams, angle-irons, riveted to the 
webs are to be provided. 

All riveted work must be perfectly true and straight. 

All knees, angles, and connecting parts in the various fram¬ 
ings are to be of wrought-iron, all well riveted and bolted. No 
cast-iron is to be used. All angle plates and knees are to be 
bent while hot, and across the fibre of the metal; when finished 


THE HAVEMEYER BUILDING, 12 1 / 

they shall be free from cracks and seams, without initial strain, 
and with the full strength of the plates preserved. 

All the girders between the columns on all the stories (ex¬ 
cept on the second tier between G and G2, H and Hz') are to 
be set so that the bottom flange is 1^ in. below the bottom of 
the beams and the beams framing into the same are to be cut 
off square to fit the web of the girders. In all cases wedge 
foot-blocks on which the beams rest are to be provided, riveted 
to the bottom flange of the beams or girders; the bearing in 
all cases must be uniform without wedge or blocking. Where 
beams are framed into headers and trimmers they are to be 
flush on the bottom, and the ends of the beams are to be cut 
to fit accurately the shape of the beam on which they rest. 
All beams throughout must be secured in position by angle- 
irons and rivets. The angle-irons are to be 3^ in. x 32 in. and 
as long as the web of the beams, and placed each side of same. 
Six {-in. rivets are to be used for all beams 10 in. or less in 
depth, and nine {-in. rivets for all other beams. Beams and 
girders are to be secured in the same manner to the pillars, 
columns, and plate girders ; channel bars are to be framed in 
the same manner. 

Girders formed of two or more beams are to have inserted 
between the webs of the beams, not more than 6 feet apart, 
and at the ends blocks of cast-iron fitting accurately the form 
of the beams cast with proper lugs and flanges, through which 
the beams are to be bolted together by two f-in. bolts for all 
beams over 10 in. in depth, and one bolt for all beams of 10 in. 
and less depth. 

The girders of all the tiers of beams located between the 
columns D and D 1, Dz and Z>3, K and AT, K2 and W3 are 
each to be made of two 12-in. channel bars, 20 lbs. per foot 
each. These girders are to have wrought-iron packing pieces 
placed between the webs opposite the ends of the beams fram¬ 
ing into the same, and through which the rivets are to pass. 
The ends of these girders are to be fastened to the pillars or 


128 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS . 


columns by means of angle-irons placed back to back with 
packing pieces between them, riveted to the pillars or columns 
and girders. The web of each channel bar (of the girders) at 
the end where the pin-hole for the bracing is located is to be 
reinforced by a £-in. thick wrought-iron plate 9 in. X 12 in., 
secured by six f-in. rivets. 

All girders formed of channel bars are to have f-in. thick 
and 8-in. wide top plates riveted to the flanges with j-in. rivets, 
pitch 5 in. These top plates are to be of sufficient length, ex¬ 
tending within % in. of the cross-bracing. 

All beams and girders carrying walls are to have f-in. thick 
iron plates, the full width of the wall, except otherwise directed, 
securely riveted to the upper flanges; rivets to have 8-in. pitch 
and countersunk heads. Short plates are to be provided near 
the ends of the beams from A to F and G to A^ on the base¬ 
ment tier, and circular plates under the area wall opposite piers 
A and N. 

The bearings on the walls of all beams, girders, and lintels 
must be full and true, not less than 6 in. at each end. Beams 
having a span of over 20 feet, and girders, are to have, bearings 
on the walls of not less than 10 in.; lir.tels over openings more 
than 5 feet wide are to have 1 inch additional bearing for each 
additional foot of span. 

The construction of the pillar and column connections, the 
base plates and the other work, is to be made as hereinafter 
specified. 

The substitution of pipes, thimbles, or other devices for 
filling pieces, blockings, packing pieces, etc., as specified, will 
not be permitted under any circumstances. 

The contractor is to do all drilling and tapping of iron-work 
that may be required, and is to furnish all necessary machine 
screws and bolts for fastening wood and other work. 

Setting.—-All the iron-work throughout is to be set in the 
very best manner; all bearings are to be full and true—the 
contractor providing all necessary scaffolding, trestling, centres, 


THE HAVEMEYER BUILDING. 


2 9 


shores, and oraces that may be required. In all cases the work 
must be bolted and riveted together as it progresses. All 
beams, girders, and lintels are to be set level, and the beams and 
girders of the staircase opening, shafts, and well-holes are to be 
set plumb over one another. All columns are to be set per¬ 
fectly plumb on true beds. 

All iron-work, comprising fascias, railings, and other work 
connected with the masonry, must be well fitted, and the joints 
are to be leaded. 

A sufficient number of men must be kept at the building, at 
the contractor’s expense, to do all necessary cutting, fitting, 
and drilling that may be required. 

Painting 1 . —All the iron-work is to be properly and thor¬ 
oughly cleaned from rust and cinders, and is to receive one coat 
of metallic paint and pure linseed oil, well brushed in. A good 
coat of the best light boiled linseed oil is to be applied to all 
surfaces in contact before they are riveted together. The 
paint is to be allowed to dry before the work is delivered at 
the building. 

The cast-iron lintels for the windows in the rear walls are 
to be painted with two good coats of red lead, allowed to dry 
before they are set. 

After the work has been set, it is to be painted another coat 
of the same kind of paint before it is built in. Prince’s metallic 
paint or Rossie iron ore paint is to be used. Pure linseed oil 
only is to be used for the paint. 

All cast-iron work exposed to view is to be well filled, and 
rubbed down to a smooth surface before the paint is applied. 

Beams and Channel Bars of such sizes and weights as 
shown on the drawings, and as hereinafter specified, are to be 
provided and set for all the various tiers, and wherever neces- 
.sary and required to form proper supports for the floor arching, 
vault arching, and roof arching. All beams, channels, etc., not 
shown are to be “good and sufficient.” 


130 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


All beams supporting the elevator sheaves will be provided 
under another contract. 

The ends of all girders, beams and channel bars resting on 
pillars or columns are to be riveted at each bearing with two 
f-in. rivets through the flanges, and the girders of all tiers of 
beams are to have two 3^" X 2 >h" angle irons riveted to the 
pillars or columns, and to the webs of the girders with 9f-in. 
rivets. The ends of girders formed of channel-bars are to be 
riveted at the flanges, and with angle irons with packing pieces 
as before specified. 

The beams between A2 and C2 on the second tier are to 
have 3" X 3" angle irons, riveted to the web to receive the high 
level floor arching. 

At the foot of the main stairs (ground floor) between Gi 
and Hi two beams are to be provided, placed over one another, 
for the high and low level floor arching. 

The bent channel-bar for the floor arching of the elevator 
halls on the first story and on all stories above is to be carried 
at each pier on 6-in. beams, 4 ft. long, to which it is to be riveted 
with two f-in. rivets to each beam, and the portion over the 
entrances is to be hung by means of three 3-J" X i" stirrup- 
irons, properly shaped and riveted. 

Over the bent channel-bars at all the elevator door open¬ 
ings, to form a support for the saddles, provide and set 6-in. 
beams, 16 lbs. per foot, properly supported on upright beams 
of the same kind, placed on top of the cantilever beams carry¬ 
ing the bent channel-bars, all to be properly framed, fastened, 
and riveted. 

The beams for the deck-house roof are to be of such sizes 
as hereinafter specified. 

Channel-bars not less than 8-in. deep are to be provided in 
all cases for supporting the floor, vault and roof arches at the 
walls and piers, and are to be set with a 2-inch bearing on 
the walls the full length. 


THE HAVEMEYER BUILDING. 


131 

All beams and channel-bars are to have properly drilled or 
punched rivet-holes and holes for tie-rods. 

All beams and channel-bars are to be of mild steel of the 
standard weights and sizes made by Carnegie, Phipps & Co., 
Ltd., Pittsburgh, Pa.; or of other equally good make, of the 
same or larger sectional areas for beams and bars of the same 
depth. 

Beams and channel-bars of less sectional area in the flanges, 
or of lighter weights than those above mentioned, will not be 
accepted under any circumstances; and if furnished, set, and 
fastened, they must be removed promptly upon notification 
from the architect. 

In case the contractor cannot furnish steel beams of the 
kind required, he shall be at liberty, with the approval of the 
architect, to furnish wrought-iron beams and bars, the moments 
of inertia of which are larger than those of the corresponding 
steel beams and bars, and calculated with an ultimate strain 
not exceeding 15,000 pounds to the square inch. All such 
beams and bars are to be “good and sufficient,” and the con¬ 
tractor is to furnish to the architect for his approval a detailed 
list of all such beams and bars before work is commenced. 

Girders made of two or more beams, as before specified, 
are to be provided as shown on the drawings. 

Box Girders, made as before specified, are to be provided 
and set as shown on the girders. 

The following box girders will be required for supporting 
the tank-house floor beams : 

Location. Depth. Fhuiges. Angle Irons - Rivets. 

G2-G4 15" i" 13" x if" 3rx3rxr r 

H2-H4 15" 4" 13" x It" 34" X 34" x 4" 4" 

Tie-rods. —Are to be not less than one inch in diameter, 
and are to be provided for all beams and channel-bars. 


132 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


All are to be placed in continuous rows, at right angles with 
the webs of the beams and channels. 

All beams are to have one row of tie-rods, placed equidis¬ 
tant between the bearings. The ends of all beams and channel- 
bars, not sufficiently fixed laterally by iron or mason-work, 
are to have additional tie-rods; and additional tie-rods are to 
be provided wherever required. 

All tie-rods are to be properly tightened before the arches 
are built. 

Anchors, Straps, Clamps, etc.— Provide and deliver at 
the building all necessary anchors, clamps, and dowels for the 
stone-work; each piece of stone is to be anchored, and all cop¬ 
ings of wall and boiler-flue stack are to be clamped. All are 
to be made of iX i" wrought iron, of proper length, and of 
such shapes as may be directed. 

Provide for the mason all necessary anchors for the corner 
piers A, A4, N, and N3, which are to be anchored on every 
story (except where continuous tie-rods are hereinafter speci¬ 
fied) as follows: pier A to Ai and B, pier A4 to A2, pier N to 
Ni and M, pier N3 to N2. These anchors are to extend from 
centre to centre of the piers, and are to be made flat of 2 \" X 
y iron with a 1^ in., 16-in. long spear at each end. 

Provide for the mason all necessary anchors for anchoring 
the corners of the walls, every four feet, to be made of i£"x f" 
iron, 4 feet long, with a i-in. diameter 16-inch long spear at each 
end. These anchors are to be used where the walls and piers 
are not carried up at the same time. 

Provide for the mason 20 anchors for each story from 
ground floor to the 13th story, for anchoring the exterior circu¬ 
lar wall to the interior piers, these anchors are each to be about 
8 ft. long and made of ij" X f" iron with a 16-in. long i^-in. 
diameter spear at each end ; at the piers one spear may be used 
for two anchors. These anchors are to be set edgewise against 
the face of the thin walls on the machine shaft side. 

Provide for the mason flat tie anchors for the walls enclos- 


THE HAVEMEYER BUILDING . 


33 


ing the elevator shafts at G2 and H2 ; these tie anchors are to 
be made of 4" X f" iron with 16 in. long, 1 in. diameter spears, 
and are to be placed two in the height of every story. 

Provide for the mason all necessary anchors, rods, bolts, 
cantilevers, and clamps for the terra-cotta work. All the trim¬ 
mings of all fa£ades, above the stone-work on the ground floor, 
will be terra-cotta. 

Each projecting piece, arch-blocks, caps, etc., will be 
anchored, and plates and rods are to be provided for the bal¬ 
usters. Cantilevers are to be provided for the four cornices, 
including the blocks, over the caryatides on the nth story. 
The cantilevers for the main cornice are to be made of 4-inch 
beams, placed about 2 feet apart (one in each block); a 6-in. 
beam extending from pier to pier is to rest on top of the inner 
end of the cantilevers or is to be framed to the same ; canti¬ 
levers of 4" X 4" tee-irons, placed about 2 feet apart, are to be 
provided for the three other cornices. 

Anchors are to be made f" X 1" and §" X if” iron, of such 
shapes and lengths as may be directed. Rods for balusters are 
to be f in. diameter, with necessary plates, washers, and nuts 
—all as may be directed. 

All anchors, clamps, dowels, and rods above specified are to 
be galvanized. 

Provide for the mason all necessary lengths of X 2" bar 
iron for man-hole openings in fire proof partitions and fur- 
rings, as may be directed. 

The ends of all beams and girders resting on a wall or pier 
are to have if" X i" iron anchors, each bolted to the web with 
two f in. bolts, and the other end turned around a i-in. diame¬ 
ter wrought-iron spear 16 in. long, set vertically, and in no 
case lessthan 4 inches from the end of the beam or girder. 

Beams and girders resting on tops of pillars, colums, and gir¬ 
ders, where they abut or are placed opposite one another, are 
to be strapped together by means of if" X f" wrought-iron 


134 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 

straps, of proper lengths, riveted to the end of each beam and 
girder with two f-in. rivets at each end. 

The channel-bars are to be provided with bent anchors 
made of f" X £" iron, bolted to the ends of the tie-rods. 

All necessary anchors are to be provided for the light cast- 
iron work hereinafter specified. 

Tie-bars. —Provide and set three lines of continuous tie- 
bars, placed in the centre of the exterior walls, anchored with 
a i^-in. diameter 16-in. long spear at each pier, extending en¬ 
tirely around the building. One set of tie-bars is to be located 
on the line with the 3d story floor, one set on the line with the 
11 th story floor, and the other set is to be on the line of the 
13th story floor on all the rear walls and over the 13th story 
window arches on all the front walls. These tie-bars are to be 
made of 4" X f" iron, with upset ends and the holes are to be 
drilled. 

Sway-braces.— Diagonal sway-braces are to be provided 
and set between the ends of the girders, located between D and 
Di, D2 and D3, K and Ki, K2 and K3, on each story from 
the basement girders to the roof girders. 

All the rods used for the sway-braces are to be if-in. diame¬ 
ter except those on the 12th story, which are to be i-in. diame¬ 
ter, and those on the 13th story, which are to be f-in. diameter. 
Each rod is to be made in two sections, and each section is to 
have the ends upset for the eyes and the screw ends. 

Turn-buckles are to be provided for all rods. The upset 
screw ends of the rods are to be if-in. diameter for the if-in. 
diameter rods, if-in. diameter for the i-in. diameter rods, and 1- 
in. diameter for the f-in. diameter rods; in all cases the screw 
threads are to be carefully cut. The eyes of the rods are to be 
properly made with upset ends, having full sectional areas; the 
pin holes are to be bored ; the if-in. and i-in. diameter rods 
are to have the ends flattened to -§•" thickness. 

All the pins are to be 1diameter except those of the 13th 


THE HAVEMEYER BUILDING. 


35 


story girders, which are to be i J-in. diameter, and those of the 
roof girders, which are to be i in. diameter. 

All pins are to have proper heads, nuts, washers, and pack¬ 
ing pieces. 

All sway-bracing must be put in place and properly 
tightened as the erection of the work advances, story by story. 

Lintels of Cast Iron are to be provided for all openings 
in the masonry, except otherwise specified or directed. The 
flanges are to be the full width of the walls and piers, except 
for openings in the walls of the facades on the three streets, 
which are to be the width of the backing. All window 
openings with square and round heads are to have cast-iron 
lintels, and in all cases the lintels for double windows are 
to be made to extend over both windows. The lintels for 
openings in curved walls are to have the outside flanges made 
on the curve and the webs straight. 

The lintels for the windows in the rear walls are to be made 
with a rebate for receiving the heads of the window frames. 
The exposed part of these lintels are to be finished smooth 
and clean. 

In all cases where the window openings have flat arches, the 
lintels are to be placed over the same as shown and as may be 
directed. 

The inner lintels of windows in elevator shafts and of the 
openings to the pipe shafts on the 2d and 4th stories are to be 
drilled and tapped, and large brass screws are to be provided 
for fastening the marble soffits. 

All lintels exposed to view are to have the exposed parts 
finished. 

The webs of all lintels are to be four inches high at the 
ends, and are to have a rise of I 1 inches for every foot of span. 

Lintels are to have skewbacks wherever required. 

All lintels over 16 inches wide are to have two webs, or 
lintels are to be placed side by side. 

All lintels (not carrying floor beams) over openings not 


136 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


over 6 ft. wide are to have i-in. thick flanges and webs, and 
over 6 ft. and not over 8 ft. they are to be if in. thick, and 
over 8 ft. 1 f in. thick. In special cases the lintels are to be 
“ good and sufficient.” 

Pillars of Wrought Iron. —All the pillars throughout for 
supporting the girders, beams, and other parts of the building 
are to be made of 4 wrought-iron plates, riveted together by 
means of 4 angle irons. All the plates and angle irons are to 
be perfect in every respect; all finished with clean, sharp edges. 

In all cases the girders and beams are to rest on 4 in. X 4 in. 
X if in. angle iron brackets, riveted to the pillars with not less 
than four f-in. rivets for those under the girders and three f-in. 
rivets for those under the beams. The ends of all beams and 
girders are to be riveted to these brackets with two j-in. rivets. 
In addition, the ends of the webs of all beams and girders are 
to be riveted to the pillars with angle-irons as before, specified. 

All pillars are to have cast-iron base plates, hereinafter 
specified. 

The ends of all pillars are to have four 3 in. X 3 in. X f in, 
angle brackets, riveted with not less than two f-in. rivets. 

The ends of all pillars, after the angle brackets have been 
riveted on, are to be turned off in a lathe at right angles with 
the axis of the pillars. 

Wrought-iron plates, faced off on both sides, not less than 
one inch thick, finished, are to be placed between the ends of 
all pillars; the faces are to be parallel to one another, and the 
plates are to be of sufficient size to afford full bearings for the 
angle brackets; the plates of the pillars next to the masonry 
piers are to have a sufficient projection beyond the angle 
brackets for securing the wall anchors. In all cases where a 
pillar of smaller dimensions is placed on a larger one, an addi¬ 
tional plate of the same kind and thickness is to be provided. 

The tops of the pillars are to have angle brackets and f-in. 
thick plates. 


THE HAVEMEYEK BUILDING. 


137 


The bearings of all pillars throughout are to be full and 
true ; no shimming or wedging will be allowed. 

In all cases where necessary, packing pieces are to be used 
back of the angle brackets. 

All pillars are to be riveted together through the angle 
brackets and plates, with not less than six f-in. rivets. 

All pillars at the exterior piers are to be securely anchored 
to the mason-work with special anchors, made of 5 in. X f in. 
iron, riveted with two f-in. rivets to the under side of the 
plates, extending to the centre of the piers and turned around 
at if-in. diam., 16-in. long spar. 

These anchors are to be galvanized. 

The pillars Bi, B2, B3, Cl, C2, Di, D2, Ei, E2, Fi, F2, Gi r 
Hi, Ii, I2, J1, J2, Ki, K2, Li, L2, Mi and M2 are each to be 
made in one length, extending through the cellar and base¬ 
ment stories. 

16. Pillars in vaults composed of 4—3^- in. X 3f in. xf in. 
angle-irons f-in. rivets, riveted together in shape of a -p. 

Posts. —The two posts carrying the tank-house floor at G3 
and H3 are to be made of 12-in. steel beams, 40 lbs. per foot; 
the girders and beams resting on the same are to have angle 
brackets and knees, all perfectly riveted. 

The posts in the east-vault walls in cellar and basement 
shown on the plans are to be made of 10-in., 33 lbs. per foot, 
beams, each in one piece, and all are to have base-plates and 
10-inch channel-bars framed to the top. All connections are 
to be fitted, framed, and riveted the same as specified for 
beams. 

All other posts that may be required for supports are to be 
made of beams “good and sufficient.” 

Cast-iron Base-plates are to be provided for all the pillars 
and columns in the cellar, as shown. These base-plates are to 
be cast with flanges, ribs, webs, and rings, as shown; the thick¬ 
ness of the shell and of the bottom and top flanges is to be if 
in., and the other parts not less than if in. thick. 


138 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 

The castings are to be perfectly sound. The bottom 
flanges and rings on which the columns rest are to be faced 
off in a lathe parallel to each other. All base-plates are to be 
bedded solid in Portland cement on the granite caps. The 
base-plates of the pillars and columns G4, H4, are to be made 
as shown ; the metal is to be 1 in. thick. 

The base-plates under the posts and under*the pillars sup¬ 
porting the area wall are to be ij in. thick. 

Roofs. —The main roof is to be built as shown on the 
deck-house plan. The roof of the deck-house is to be built as 
follows: the pillars on columns C2, D2, F2, G2, H2, I2, J2, K2, 
and L2 are carried up supporting a girder 10 in. deep, 33 lbs. 
per foot. Soffits are to be prepared with necessary angle- 
irons, prepared to receive the necessary wire lathing. 

Staircases. —All the staircases throughout are to be built 
of iron, with iron, marble, and slate steps and platforms, as 
hereinafter specified. Strings are to be made of wrought and 
cast iron, with wrought and cast iron ornamental face-work ; 
wall-strings are to be of cast-iron with ornamental face-work, 
accurately fitted and properly supported. In all cases the 
ends of the wall-strings are to be properly made to fit the 
base, and the under side is to finish properly at the plastering. 

In all cases the floor beams at the landings are to be 
covered with faciae and moulding extending from the walls to 
the newel-posts and between the newels. All the work to be 
ornamented and finished on both sides. The under side of 
the platforms and landings are to be finished with ornamental 
ribs and panels. All the platforms of the main staircase and 
the platforms of the other staircases are to be supported on 
every story by means of four 3-in. angle or tee-irons placed 
vertically and extending from the tops of the beams to the 
bottoms of the beams above, to which each is to be bolted at 
each end with the necessary angles and knees and six f-in 
bolts. 


THE HAVEMEYER BUILDING . 139 

Newels are to have caps, drops, panelled, moulded, and 
ornamented shafts, as shown and as may be directed. 

In all cases the staircase walls are to be made to correspond 
with the staircase strings, the full thickness of the floor. 

All risers are to be of cast-iron, moulded on both sides. 
The starts of all staircases, where directed, are to have 
moulded and cast-iron jib panels, vertical panels, and soffits, as 
shown and as directed. 

The steps from the low to high level on the ground floor 
in the Church Street entrance hall are to be built with con¬ 
cealed strings at the ends and two intermediate strings. 

All the railings are to be made of wrought and cast iron. 
The posts and balusters are to be of polished wrought-iron; 
those of the main staircase are to be twisted. All are to be 
provided with ornamental cast-iron sockets and panels, and the 
top-rail is to be of wrought-iron, prepared to receive the wood 
hand-rail,, except the railings of the stairs to the cellar near A2 
and Gi, which are to be made as hereinafter specified. 

The horizontal railings of the staircases are to be made in 
the same manner, to correspond. 

The steps from the low to the high level on the ground 
floor, the main stairs from the ground floor to the thirteenth 
story, the stairs from the thirteenth story to the deck-house, 
and the two staircases from the basement to the first story are 
to have treads, platforms, and landings of the very best quality 
of pink Knoxville marble i£ in. thick, finished with nosings on 
the fronts and with nosings on the returns, except the enclosed 
steps, which are to have nosings on the fronts only. Each 
tread is to be in one piece, and the platforms are to be made 
in one, two, and three pieces each. In no case are the pieces 
to be less in width than the stairs by the width of the platform. 
The platform of the landing at the deck-house floor is to be 
made in one piece. 

All steps and platforms are to be securely fastened by 
means of screws and leaded holes. 


140 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


All the marble-work must be delivered in perfect condition, 
free from scratches, spalls, and other defects. 

The risers of the two steps in the Church Street entrance 
hall are to be of the very best quality polished Alps green 
marble, set and fastened in the very best manner. 

All the marble steps and platforms are to be polished in 
the very best manner on all sides except the tops, which are to 
be rubbed. 

All joints are to be made uniform and close, and are to be 
properly pointed. 

On completion of the building all the marble-work is to 
be oiled one good coat of pure linseed oil, well rubbed down. 

The two staircases from the cellar to the basement story 
near A2 and Gi are to have the treads and platforms made of 
cast-iron J in. thick, diamond pattern, with nosings, and the 
risers are to be cast with segment openings, all properly fitted 
and bolted to the strings. Proper supports and hangers are to 
be provided for these staircases. The railings are to be made 
of f-in round iron, bolted to the strings, properly braced, to 
have a wrought-iron top rail and moulded capping. The 
newels are to be cast-iron, plain moulded, with caps and drops. 

As soon as the iron-work of the staircases has been set, the 
same is to be covered with boxing, and temporary wood treads 
and platforms are to be provided, all properly fastened. After 
the marble and slate treads and platforms have been set the 
temporary wood treads and platforms are to be replaced, to 
protect the marble and slate-work, and must be kept in repair 
until the completion of the building. 

Ladders made of wrought-iron, strings 3 in. X 2 in. with 
double rungs of f-in. round iron, are to be provided and put up 
as follows: 

In each of the six elevator-machine shafts at the second 
and fourth stories, in the deck-house to the tank-house floor, 
and one to the grating over the service elevator. 

All the above ladders are to be securely fastened, and are 


THE HAVEMEYER BUILDING. 


141 

to be put up complete with necessary i-in. diameter hand¬ 
rails, as may be directed. 

Railings. —All railings are to be made of wrought-iron, to 
be securely fastened and braced. The ornamental scroll-work 
is to be well made and firmly riveted. 

On the streets railings are to be provided for the store 
entrance steps, as shown and as may be directed. The railings 
on the main cornice (12th story), and the railings on the roof 
between the parapet posts on the three street fronts, are to be 
made as shown and directed ; all to be made of large-sized bar 
and strap-iron, properly fastened and braced. The railings on 
the main cornice are to have proper foot-blocks, extending 
back under the gutter lining to the masonry, to which the posts 
are to be bolted. 

On the coping of the vault wall in rear court, opposite pier 
F3, provide and put up a railing about 9 ft. long, 8 ft. high, 
made of i-in. diameter round bars 6 in. between centres and -§- 
in. diameter intermediate bars, with 4 f-in. X 2 J-in. cross-bars, 
put together in the very best manner and securely fastened. 

All the windows on second story on all the street fronts 
are to have on the inside, properly screwed to the wood-work, 
2-in. diameter pipe guard-rails with ornamental cast-iron sock¬ 
ets. The surface of the rails and sockets must be finished 
smooth, and galvanoplated with copper or bronze. 

On all the stories pipe rails with sockets are to be provided 
and put up where directed, in the two shafts between F2 and 
G2, H2 and I2 ; in the tank-house pipe rails with proper stand¬ 
ards and braces and two rails are to be put up at the edge of 
the floor. 

Gates.—Each of the three entrances on Cortlandt, Church, 
and Dey streets are to be provided with ornamental gates of 
wrought-iron, as shown. 

Each set of gates is to be made in four folds, and is to have 
all necessary hinges, bolts, cross-bars, fastenings, and locks put 
up complete in every respect. The frames are to be made of 


142 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 

heavy bar-iron, and the ornamental strap-work is to be extra 
heavy. 

Guards. —Each of the transom sashes over the main en¬ 
trance doors on Cortlandt, Church, and Dey streets are to have 
ornamental guards made of wrought-iron, as shown. 

The frames are to be made of heavy bar-iron, and the orna¬ 
mental strap-work is to be extra heavy; to be properly fas¬ 
tened. 

All the windows in the partitions west of the main staircase 
on the first story, and all stories above, are to have guards 
made of wrought-iron, frames to be of f-in. X f-in. iron filled 
with twisted lattice-work of -^-in. X i-i n * strap-iron, placed 2 
in. between centres, riveted at each intersection and to the 
frames. 

These guards are to be hung on butts and are to have 
approved fastenings. 

Grille-work. —The grille-work for the elevator fronts is to 
to be provided as hereinafter specified. 

Gratings. —On the top of all elevator shafts and the eleva¬ 
tor-machine shafts, gratings with trap doors are to be provided ; 
to be made of f-in. X i-J-in. bars placed if in. between centres, 
with rods and thimbles, set in frames of f-in. X if-in. iron, prop¬ 
erly leaded to the stone copings and fastened to the iron beams 
and provided with necessary supports. To be properly framed 
for the elevator ropes and put up complete in every respect. 

Gratings made in the same manner are to be put down on 
the level with the floor on all stories in the shafts between F2 
and G2, H2 and I2, as shown. 

Gratings are to be provided in the elevator-machine shafts 
at the cylinder heads. 

Partitions, Enclosures, Floors, Etc., made of T \-in. plate- 
iron, properly fitted and fastened, with all the corners riveted to¬ 
gether by means of 2\ X -in. angle-irons, and provided with 
necessary tee and angle irons for stiffening bars, securely fast- 


THE HAVEMEYER BUILDING. 143 

ened and bolted to the iron-work and masonry, are to be 
provided and set as follows: 

At pier A3 the enclosure of the sidewalk elevator built on 
an incline is to extend from the sidewalk to the low level 
basement floor; fastened to the iron floor of the coal vault, 
between A and Ai, A2 and A3, the enclosures under the 
patent lights are to be placed on an incline, extending from 
the sidewalk to the basement floor beams. 

Between piers B and C the enclosure for the sidewalk ele¬ 
vator is to extend from the sidewalk to the cellar floor; at 
piers F and G the partitions from the piers to the area walls 
are to extend from the sidewalk to the patent lights at base¬ 
ment floor level. 

Between piers N2 and N3 the enclosures under the patent 
lights placed on an incline is to extend from the sidewalk to 
four feet above the basement floor at the inside face of the wall. 

The floor of the coal vault on the low level basement floor 
is to be covered with £-in. thick plate-iron, with butt joints 
screwed to cover plates placed under the same and to the 
flanges of the beams. 

The coal chute in the bottom of this floor is to be funnel- 
shaped, made of £-in. thick plate-iron with slide cover of ap¬ 
proved make, worked by a lever in the cellar. 

A chute 20 in. diameter, made of J-in. thick plate-iron, with 
the ends cut to fit the batter of the foundation-walls, is to be 
placed in the cellar between piers A3 and A4, as directed. 

The floors of the area at basement floor level between the 
partitions at piers F and G is to be covered with J-in. thick 
plate-iron extending to the inner face of the piers, to have 
necessary blocking pieces on top of the beams, and tee-iron 
cross-bars between the beams for supports, to which the plate- 
iron is to be screwed with butt joints; at pier F a pocket is to 
be constructed for the sidewalk elevator of the same kind of 
iron, to allow the platforms to land flush with the floor; the 
basement floor at the sidewalk elevator between B and C is to 


144 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


be covered with £-in. thick plate-iron, three feet wide by full 
width of opening, properly supported and fastened, and a fascia 
extending to the bottom of the beam under the same, made of 
the same kind of iron, is to be provided. 

The basement floor at the entrance to the service elevator 
at F2 is to be covered with a £-in. thick plate-iron 3 ft. 6 in. 
wide, forming door-sill, properly fastened to blocking pieces 
secured to the floor beams. 

The bottom of each of the six passenger-elevator shafts is 
to have a floor made of £-in. thick plate-iron placed 2 ft. 6 in. 
below the floor of the ground floor, to have necessary 5-in¬ 
beams and tee-irons for supports, to which the plates are to be 
screwed ; necessary holes are to be drilled for the ropes of the 
elevator machinery. 

At the bottom of the service elevator, 2 ft. 6 in. below the 
basement floor, a floor is to be constructed in the same manner 
with the four sides 2 ft. 6 in. high, properly fastened and sup¬ 
ported ; the bottoms of the five elevator-machine shafts are to 
have wrought-iron pans the full size of the shaft, made of £-in. 
plate-iron with sides turned up 6 in. all around, made perfectly 
water-tight and provided with a flanged outlet for a 1 j--in. pipe. 

Two additional pans made in the same manner, of sizes as 
directed, are to be provided and set. 

A fascia of J-in. thick plate-iron is to be provided and set 
for the outside edge of the tank-house floor, extending from 
the bottom of the beams to 4 in. above the floor. 

Iron Shutters are to be provided for all the windows in 
the rear walls on all the stories. 

All shutters are to have frames made of J- X ii in. iron 
covered with No. 16 crimped iron, properly riveted; to be 
hung on heavy wrought-iron pin hinges and cast-iron eyes 
built in. To be fastened with Cornell's patent extension cross¬ 
bar or other equally good fixtures, complete in every respect, 
for securely fastening the shutters when closed and when open. 

The shutters of the large windows are to be made in four 


THE HA FEME YET BUILDING. 145 

folds, and all shutters must fold back when open, close to the 
walls. In special cases the shutters are to be made as directed. 

Iron Doors. —Iron doors are to be made of f X 1} in. iron 
frames, covered with No. 12 crimped iron, properly riveted. 
All doors are to be hung on heavy wroughtdron hinges, and 
are to have latch fastenings, except otherwise directed. All 
doors, except otherwise directed, are to have 3 X 3 in. angle 
iron frames for the openings, to be securely fastened. 

Iron doors are to be provided in the cellar for openings to 
the boiler flue stack, to the coal vault and shafts, where shown, 
to the elevator enclosure between piers B and C, and in the 
basement to the same elevator enclosure. 

The door to the coal vault is to be made in two sections; 
the lower section to be hinged to the upper, and provided with 
proper fastenings. 

Posts for Doors. —All doors in fire-proof partitions and 
sash partitions throughout the building are to have two posts 
of 4-in. channel-bars, weighing each 8J- lbs. per foot, extending 
from the top of the floor beams or top of concrete to the 
bottom of the beams of the floor above. 

The tops and bottom are to be connected together by 
means of f X 3 in. bar iron, riveted to the posts, and the 
upper part of each frame is to be secured to the nearest beam 
by means of two £ X i in. straps, which must not project below 
the bottom of the beams. Ail channels used for posts are to 
be perfectly true and straight, out of wind, set perfectly plumb, 
and to a dne. 

Each channel-bar is to have holes drilled for fastening the 
wood-work. 

Light Cast-iron Work is to be particularly well made 
and finished. 

All the bases of the show windows on the three streets, 
comprising the lower portions from the sidewalk to the lower 
glass-line are to be made of cast-iron, with proper supports. 
These bases are to have moulded brackets, panels, and cap 


146 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 

mouldings, returns at end and returns extending to the door 
jambs, all to be properly fitted and fastened to the masonry, 
the patent lights, steps, and platforms, and must be accurately 
set to fit the work over the same, which will be furnished 
under another contract. 

All to be made perfectly water-tight. The capping is to 
be drilled and tapped as directed. 

All the store-entrance doors, the outside doors in the base¬ 
ment, and the exterior doors of the roof-house are to have 
moulded cast-iron saddles. 

Deck and Tank House is to be built as shown. The 
frame is to be made of 3i X 3i X i in. angle-iron placed 
about three feet apart, with sills and 4 X 4 X i in. angle plates, 
on which the roof beams rest, all to be well riveted. The 
exterior of this frame-work is to be covered with No. 12 plate- 
iron, closely riveted and made perfectly water-tight. On the 
rear walls the plate-iron is to cover the upper part of the face 
of the brick wall as shown. The upper part of the plate-iron 
is to extend in all cases to the top of the angle-iron purlins of 
the roof. At the door and window frames the plate-iron is to 
project and is to be screwed to the wood frames. 

The cornices and trimmings will be placed on the plate-iron 
covering under another contract, but the contractor is to do all 
necessary drilling that may be required for bolt holes. 

Patent Lights are to be made of extra heavy frames of 
cast-iron, rebated and provided with all necessary supports. 
To be properly fastened and made perfectly water-tight. 

The patent lights at the basement floor are to be placed 
about 3 inches below the floor-line, comprising the bottoms of 
the area piers C3 and C4, at piers A to B, at piers C to F, at 
piers G to N, and the roof of the rear vault in court; these 
lights and the lights over the boiler vault are to be glazed 
with 3-in. first-quality hexagonal glass, and all the other patent 
lights flush with the sidewalks are to be made of 2-in. diame¬ 
ter first-quality glass bull’s-eyes; the patent lights on Dey 


THE HAVEMEYER BUILDING. 147 

Street, and the parts from piers F to G on Church Street, are 
to be glazed; all others are not to be glazed, but left open. 

All the patent lights are to be set with a proper descent, 
and those in areas and over the vaults are to be provided with 
6-inch long sprouts for 3-inch pipe connections and large heavy 
4-in. diameter convex brass stainers, screwed on. 

The risers under the show-windows between piers N2 and 
N3 are to be made of patent lights, glazed with first-quality 
glass 4 inches square. 

The steps, platforms, risers, and cheeks at the entrances to 
the stores between piers A and Ai, F and G, N2 and N3, are 
to be made with bull’s-eye patent lights, glazed as before speci¬ 
fied. All other steps and platforms of the other store entrances 
are to be made of cast-iron, with diamond-pattern tops and nos¬ 
ings, and the risers and cheeks are to be solid with plain panels. 

All steps, platforms, and risers are to have all necessary 
supports, and are to be properly fastened. 

All frames of the patent lights are to be made with proper 
lugs and lips for receiving the work on top of the same. 

All the patent lights in the areas and courts are to have an 
angle-iron flashing, not less th^tn 3 in. high, properly set into the 
brick-work, forming a water-table made perfectly water-tight. 

All the steps to the outside basement doors are to be made 
of cast-iron, with nosings and risers. 

The copings of all the walls in the courts are to be of cast- 
iron, properly connected with the patent-light flashings and 
with the walls, made perfectly tight; the shapes of the copings 
are to be made as directed. 

All trap-doors are to be made with heavy bar-iron frames 
covered with No. 10 plate-iron, properly hung on heavy cast 
bronze butts and fastened with hasp, staple, and padlock. All 
are to be provided with proper stays and guard-bars. 

The two ventilators over boiler vault and the three ventila¬ 
tors over the vault in the rear court and one ventilator in side¬ 
walk, patent light between piers A2 and A3 (not shown), are \.o 


148 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


in sections as the mason-work is being erected. 


be made, as directed, of angle-iron frames, covered with No. 10 
iron ; the tops are to be made same as trap doors, operated by 
chains from below. 

Provide and set where shown on ground-floor plan 24-in. 
diameter vault covers with cast-iron frames and flanges made 
of No. 10 wrought-iron extending through the arches. The 
frames are to be set flush with the flagging, and the covers are 
to have glass bull’s-eyes. 

All are to have proper chain fastenings. 

Boiler Flue is to be made as shown, and is to be put up 

The boiler 

flue is to be made with a square box at the 
bottom, and is to be provided at the bottom 
with a funnel and 18-in. diameter tube with 
a trap door. It is to be made three feet four 
inches in diameter of f-in. plate iron, riveted 
together with f-in. rivets, with a four-inch 
pitch, made in sections about 20 feet long, 
and the ends of each section are to have a 4- 
in. X 4 in. bent angle-irons riveted to the 
same ; the sections are to be bolted together 
with f-in. bolts, 6-in. between centres, 
through the angle-irons. 

Eeach section is to be supported on two 
6-in. beams resting on the walls. 

All necessary beams are to be provided 
at the foot for a proper support. 

The horizontal portion is to be made of 
the same kind of plate-iron, riveted together 
and to have an angle-iron flanged outlet in 
the boiler vault. The horizontal section is to 
extend into the boiler vault as shown, and all 
necessary supports are to be provided. The 
Fig. 61.— Wrought- top is to have a flange as shown, made of f-in. 
iron Boiler Flue, thick iron, properly fastened and braced. 









































THE HAVEMEYER BUILDING. 


I49 


Elevator Fronts are to be built as shown on the detail 
drawings, the pilasters with ornamental fronts and caps and 
the jambs ; the transoms and cornices are to be made of cast- 
iron. On the ground floor, 1st and nth stories, the portions 
above the pilasters are to be panelled and ornamented, and 
corresponding panels are to be carried across the openings. 

The jambs are to be closely fitted to the brick-work. 

All the cornices are to have one member ornamented ; the 
various sections are to be made to accurate curves, and the 
joints must be well fitted. 

The soffits are to be carried back the full depth. 

Heavy cast-iron ribbed sills extending from jamb to jamb 
are to be provided for all openings, set flush with the floor. In 
the shafts the spaces between the soffits and the sills are to be 
filled with No. 12 crimped iron, accurately fitted ; in the ground 
floor this covering plate is to extend to the iron floor. 

All the above work must be securely fastened. 

The panels above the transoms are to have panels of 
wrought-iron grille-work, made of wrought-iron frames to be of 
£ in. XI in., and the lattice is to be of \ in.X} in. bars twisted, 
riveted at each intersection with strap-work, as shown. 

The doors are to be made, as shown, of heavy wrought-iron 
bars and ornamental strap-work, all properly fastened and 
riveted. The strap-work of the upper panels is to be twisted, 
riveted at each intersection. 

One of each set of doors is to be stationary and the other 
door is to be hung on overhead bronze anti-friction sheaves on 
steel ways, provided with guard-rails, and the lower part is to 
have proper guides ; the doors are to be fastened with extra 
heavy polished bronze latches of special make and extra strong, 
striking plates and buffers with rubber heads; all to be put up 
complete in every respect. 

All the grille-w'ork and the doors are to be carefully fin¬ 
ished, and are to be Bower-Barffed. 

The service elevator located near F2 is to have on all sto- 


150 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


ries cast-iron sills and cover plates in the shafts from the door- 
head to the sills, as above specified—all to be properly fastened. 

Sidewalk Elevators. —Provide and put up complete in 
every respect 3 sidewalk elevators—one at A4, one at B, and 
one at F; the two former are to run from the cellar to the 
sidewalk, and the latter from the basement floor to the side¬ 
walk. 

The elevator at A4 is to run on an incline. 

All necessary frame-work, guides, gearing, chains, platforms, 
etc., etc., are to be provided. The winches are to be located 
where directed. All wood-work is to be of well-seasoned oak. 
The platforms are to be covered with T 3 ^--in. thick plate-iron, 
properly screwed down. All the elevators are to be delivered 
in perfect and complete working order. 

Miscellaneous. —In all cases where flashings and gutter- 
linings are to be connected with iron-work, a | X bar is to 
be screwed or bolted on every 12 inches to the iron-work, 
clamping the flashings. 

Each of the parapet posts on the three fronts is to be pro¬ 
vided with ij-in. thick galvanized cast-iron plate, 20 X 20" ; 
each plate is to be bolted down with two i-in. diam. galvanized 
iron bolts 6 ft. long, with necessary plates. 

The contractor is to remove all refuse materials promptly, 
and is to do all necessary drilling and cutting of iron-work that 
may be required and finish up after them. 



Fig. 62. —Front Ele¬ 
vation. 


CHAPTER VII. 

THE JACKSON BUILDING. 

The Jackson Building, situated on the 
north side of Union Square, New York, 
on a plot 28.6 X 200 ft., is one of the ear¬ 
liest specimens of the skeleton construc¬ 
tion, and embodies all of those features 
that distinctly pertain to its class. Its 
foundations are on solid rock, some of the 
piers supporting the wall columns being as 
much as thirty feet below the sidewalk. 

Its situation on the north side of 
Union Square, with the Century Building 
on the east, and the Parrish Building en¬ 
closing it on the west, and having an ex¬ 
tension through to Eighteenth Street, 
gives it a commanding character in spite 
of its narrowness. 

It is eleven stories in height, is entirely 
fireproof, and was finished the first of 
June, 1892. Both the Union Square and 
Eighteenth Street fronts are of pink 
granite from the New England Granite 
Works, and of buff brick inches thick. 
The building extends five stories above 
the adjoining buildings, the height from 
the curb level to the top tier of beams be- 
ing 155 ft. 6 inches. 

Iron bases were set November 5, 
1891. In one month six stories were 
erected. All the iron construction to the 


151 



































152 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 

seventh story was in place by December 12th. Then the 
brick-work began to rise rapidly, and on February 12, 1892, 
the roof tier of beams was set. 

The 1st, 2d, and 3d stories of each front 
are finished in cast-iron, with neatly moulded 
cornices and mullions. The 4th, 5th, and 
6th stories of the Union Square front have 
projecting angular copper bay windows; the 
same stories on Eighteenth Street are fin¬ 
ished with a cast-iron bay window, covering 
the entire front except the side piers. 

The stairs are finished with cast-iron 
ornamental strings and wrought-iron railings 
with marble treads, the passenger elevators 
with wrought-iron scroll grilles and cast-iron 
transoms. 

Floor-beam Spacing in the Jackson 
Building. —In spacing the floor beams and 
girders in the floor of this building economy 
of material and simplicity of connection is 
observed. The cast-iron columns, of which 
there are twenty-six, are all 12 inches by 
16 inches, and set upon cast-iron base-blocks 
33 " X 36" X ii" thick by 23 in. in height, 
arranged in the side-walls as shown on the 
plan, Fig. 63, placed about 15 ft. apart, 
standing four inches away from the party 
lines. 

The cross-girders are all 20 inches by 64 
pounds per foot I-beams, while at right 
angles to the same are placed the g"X 21 
lbs. per foot floor beams secured to the 
FIG Floor^lan AI Seders by wrought-iron knees and bolts, as 
Jackson Building, shown at Fig. 64, and spaced about 5 ft. 3 
inches apart. 

































THE JACKSON BUILDING. 


153 


A twelve-inch curtain wall extends between the columns 
from the bottom of basement to the top of sixth story, sup¬ 
ported at each tier of beams by two I-beams sufficient in 
strength to carry this wall. At the top of sixth story the col¬ 
umns cease and a 20-in. brick wall begins, built upon beam 
girders encircling the entire building, resting upon the top of 
columns and thoroughly anchored to the 7th-story floor girders. 
The 20-inch wall extends through three stories,—that is, the 



seventh, eighth, and ninth,—and then a 16-inch wall extending 
through the tenth and eleventh stories completes the building. 
The floor beams of the eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh sto¬ 
ries are 15 inch by 41 pounds per foot, spaced about 5 feet from 
centre to centre, and thoroughly anchored to the brick walls. 























































































































154 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 

Calculation of Floor Weights. —The different materials 
calculated as dead load were: Fireproof floor arches, beams, 
wooden flooring, filling above arches, fireproof partitions 
plastering upon ceiling, and plastering upon partitions, when 
added together was found to be 103 pounds per square foot. 

The live load assumed was 50 pounds per square foot, mak¬ 
ing a total of 153 pounds. 

The wall weights were 153 pounds for the 16-inch wall, 
and 192 pounds for the 20-inch wall. The weight of columns 
was also added to the total weight. The following table gives 
the total loads on the columns of each story: 


Length. Size. Load. 


6th-story columns... 


6 in. 

12" X 16" X 1" 

177 tons 

5 th “ “ .. 

. . .12 ft. 

6 in. 

a a 

195 “ 

4th “ “ .. 


9 in. 

“ X ii 

213 “ 

3 d “ “ ... 

...15 ft. 

7 i in - 

“ X Ii 

231 “ 

2d “ “ ... 

...16 ft. 

io£ in. 

“ X I| 

250 ** 

1st “ “ 

..17 ft. 

6 in. 

“ X H 

270 “ 

Basement “ 


6 in. 

“ X i£ 

290 ' ; 


Column Connection. —In joining the columns with each 
other, with the floor girders and the curtain-wall girders, sim¬ 
plicity of design was again considered ; also a rigid connection. 
By referring to the detail, Fig. 64, it will be noticed that the 
20-inch floor girder rests upon a heavy bracket about 2 inches 
thick, projecting 6 inches, and that lugs are entirely dispensed 
with. The girders were all made of one length, with only of 
an inch clearance ; 6 " X 4" X i" angle-knees were riveted to 
each side, projecting slightly beyond the end, so that the col¬ 
umns and girders were drawn perfectly tight. 

The girders supporting the curtain wall are also shown in 
this figure, the same principle being carried out as for the floor 
girders. In addition, a 6" X f" wrought-iron strap is bolted 
to the column, and helps tie these girders to each other and to 
the column. 

By referring to Fig. 65, another method of securing a rigid 
connection with the floor girders of a building seems practi- 










THE JACKSON BUILDING . 


155 


cable—two I-beams being used in the place of a deeper one. 
Where one beam is used considerable furring is required, but 
in a two-beam girder the ceiling can be made perfectly level. 
The curtain-wall girders can be accommodated in the same 






Fig. 65. —Double-beam Girder Con¬ 
nection with Cast Columns. 


Fig. 66.—Detail of Top of Column, 
Showing Girders Supporting Up¬ 
per Walls. 


manner as shown in Fig. 64, but larger knees and more bolts 
will be required. 

In resting one column upon another, eight bolts £ of an 
inch in diameter are used, and the flanges are stiffened by small 
brackets cast with the column, as shown in the figure. 

The beam girder, as previously mentioned for the support 
of the walls enclosing the upper stories, is shown in detail, 
Fig. 66. Three 20 I-beams were used, cased upon the outside 
by a J-in. thick cast-iron plate; the girder being secured by 
bolts to the top of columns, and further secured by a 6 " Xi" 
strap to each floor girder. The curtain wall is carried up 
to the bottom of the three-beam girder, while the floor arch is 
supported by a channel on the same level as the floor beam. 




















































































CHAPTER VIII. 


THE NEW NETHERLAND, NEW YORK. 

The plans as prepared and carried out under the direction 
of Mr. Wm. H. Hume, architect, complete a building which 
in some respects is interesting and imposing. No finer site 
could have been chosen for such a structure, standing as it 
does at the portal of New York’s great Park, and towering 
far above any of the tall buildings for which this locality is 
noted. 

The building covers four city lots, with a frontage on Fifth 
Avenue of ioo feet, and a depth on Fifty-ninth Street of 125 
feet, with a cellar and basement below the sidewalk, and seven¬ 
teen stories above ; the four upper stories of which are in the 
angle or slope of the roof, thus somewhat reducing the height 
of the structure. 

To complete the building it required nineteen tiers of 
steel beams and girders. The height from sidewalk to top 
tier of beams is 216 feet, with an additional 18 feet to top 
of roof houses, making the total height 234 feet, and as previ¬ 
ously mentioned, nine hundred steel columns and about forty- 
five hundred steel beams were used in the construction. 

The style of the building is of Modern Romanesque design. 
The first four stories are built of heavy rock-faced Belleville 
brown stone, thus affording a strong and massive base; the 
superstructure is of buff brick, relieved with stone and terra¬ 
cotta trimmings. The twelfth story is faced entirely with a 
heavy cornice finished by a balcony and stone balustrade, the 
whole story forming the main cornice of the building, and so 

156 


THE NEW NETHERLAND, NEW YORK . 


157 


arranged as to break in the most pleasing manner the towering 
•appearance of the building. In construction, it is as thorough¬ 
ly fireproof as it is possible to make it, while in strength it is 
only necessary to state that the brick walls are relieved of the 



Fig. 67.—The New Netherland, Fifth Avenue, Central Park and 

Fifty-ninth Street. 

strain and weight imposed by the use of heavy steel box 
columns, made of plates and angles. 

The main office, covered by a dome of iron and glass, and 
finished with bronze, forms a notable feature. 















I 58 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS . 

The grand staircase is of marble and bronze, supported 
upon heavy steel I-beam strings. 

Marble and bronze are also extensively used in good taste 
throughout the main hall, office, and various other rooms on 
the ground floor. 

The continuation of the main stairs is constructed of cast- 
iron strings, cast-iron ornamental risers with marble treads and 
guarded by ornamental wrought-iron railings. The several 
passenger-elevators fronts are finished and constructed with 
cast and wrought iron. The main passenger elevators on the 
ground floor are finished in bronze. 

The roof is constructed of 7-inch steel-beam rafters, about 
4 feet apart, fitted to the outside floor beams of the different 
stories in the inclined portion, supporting 3" X 3" X 2 T’s as 
purlins, placed horizontally 25 inches apart. The dormers are 
made of cast-iron, to which are secured terra-cotta blocks and 
copper flashings. The entire pitched roof is covered with 
terra-cotta blocks and tiles. 

Over all doors and window-openings in brick walls are 
placed cast-iron lintels, with one or more webs to suit the 
thickness of the walls, and of sufficient thickness of metal to 
carry the imposed loads; in all the openings in the fireproof 
partitions light T’s were used. 

The ceilings of halls, corridors, bath rooms and closets were 
furred down with light T’s spaced about 16J inches from cen¬ 
tre to centre, to carry terra-cotta blocks. 

The space between these hanging ceilings and floors is 
used as vent flues, to carry the vitiated air from closets, etc., 
through and out the roof. 

Floor Plan.—The floor plan, Fig. 68, shows the manner of 
dividing the floor area into rooms, halls, closets, elevators, 
stairways, etc., to the best advantage. Each apartment has 
its parlor, bed room, bath room, and closets, with a separate 
air-shaft from the bath room. These air-shafts extend to the 
roof and topped out upon the roof with a small house con- 


THE NEW NE THE ELAND, NEW YORK. 


159 


structed of T and angles, covered on the sides with iron, and 
on the top with glass and iron. In the sides of these houses 
are electric motors and fans. 

The various rooms throughout the building are all light ; 
those on the two fronts face Fifty-ninth Street and Fifth 
Avenue, those on the inside the large court in the centre of 
the building. At the bottom of this centre court the dome 
skylight is situated, covering the entire office and grand stair¬ 
way. 

At the extremity of the hall to the left is the ladies’ eleva¬ 



tor ; at the extreme right is the main elevators, with an elec¬ 
tric elevator for freight, etc., adjoining the main elevators and 
servants’ stairway. The servants’ stairway throughout the en¬ 
tire height of building is constructed of cast-iron strings and 
risers and slate treads. 

The main boiler flue, built of brick, is situated at the north- 













































160 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS . 

east corner immediately adjoining the large vent shaft. This 
flue and shaft is thoroughly tied to the building, at each tier 
of beams, by heavy wrought frames and anchors. 

Beam Plan.—The beams and girders of the building are 
arranged in a systematic and economical manner upon the 



Fig. 69. 


plan, making a strong and rigid structure throughout. By 
referring to the plan, Fig. 69, the girders are shown extending 























































































































THE NEW NE THE ELAND, NEW YORK. l6l 

in different directions, and in the majority of the spans are 
composed of two 15-inch, 32 lbs. per foot channels placed with 
the flanges toward each other, thus reducing to a considerable 
extent the cost of framing of the beams. 

When by the arrangement of the floor beams a floor arch 
is to be supported, the flange of the channel is turned toward 
the arch—such, for instance, as that shown between columns 
marked 27, 13, 14, and 15. When two channels were not suffi¬ 
cient to support the floor weight, two 15-inch by 75 lbs. per 
foot I-beams were used (see spans between columns 17 and 50, 
5 and 44). 

The weight calculated upon beams, girders, and columns is 
175 pounds per square foot of surface, which includes the 
total dead and live load. 

The columns are spaced from 15 to 17 feet apart, except 
the distance between columns 17 and 50, which is 27 ft. 2 inches. 

The openings throughout the floors for stairs, elevators, 
and flues are framed with beams and channels, as shown upon 
the plan. 

Columns 49 and 38 are placed in the position shown to 
equalize the distance between 37 and 50, an arrangement which 
serves to brace the end wall by placing the beam girders 
between the columns 23, 49, and 38 on a skew. This same 
principle is also carried out on the opposite end of the build¬ 
ing between columns 18, 28, and 31. 

The column marked 51 at end of light-court adjoining the 
stairs is supported by a plate girder, which in turn rests upon 
brackets, secured to columns marked 11 and 12. 

The floor beams throughout the building are 12-inch by 32 
lbs. per foot (except between columns 17 and 50 where they 
were made 15-inch by 41 lbs. per foot), and stiffened by }-inch 
diameter tie-rods spaced on an average of 5 feet centre. 

Columns.—The details of the columns and the column con¬ 
nections in this building are, without exception, the best that 
could be designed for such a structure. 


162 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


By referring to the detail of column, Fig. 70, it will be ob¬ 
served that the girders (of two 15-in. beams in this case) are 





Fig. 70.—Detail of Cellar Column. 

secured to the columns by twelve rivets through angle-knees 
4 in. X 4 in. X i in. thick. 

The inside knees are first riveted to the column at the shop 





















































































THE NEW NE THE ELAND, NEW YORK. 163 

and the outside knees are left loose, so the beams can be 
placed in position ; then the entire work is riveted together by 
hot rivets at the building. 

The same connection also applies to the floor beams and 
girders joining the columns. 

Angle-knees are also riveted to the column at the heel of 
the beams and girders, as shown in the figure. In securing the 
columns to each other heavy steel planed plates were placed 
between at about the floor levels, so as to allow a proper clear¬ 
ance for the girders; then each side of the columns were 
placed, similar plates covering the joint, and extending at 
least two feet above and below the joint; and when the im¬ 
mediate column above is less in size than the one below 
filler plates are used, shown by the heavy black line, and 
riveted through by the same sized rivet as used in the body of 
the columns. 

Rivets of i-in., {-in., and f-in. were used throughout the 
building ; i-in. in the heavier and f-in. in the lighter columns. 

The above detail also applies to the Z-bar column. 

Foundations for Columns.—To prepare the foundation 
for the weight to be supported the rock was cut away to a 
depth of three or four feet, so there could be no chance of any 
decayed portion remaining; then several blocks of hard granite 
were dressed and set upon each other at about an angle of 30. 
degrees. On top of this a heavy steel plate 2 in. thick was 
bedded, and heavy anchors i{ in. in diameter were built ex¬ 
tending down through the granite, passed up through the 
2-in. plate and foot of column, and held securely by heavy 
nuts. 

For crushing strength of stone, etc., see chapter on Foun¬ 
dation. 

Where buildings of this weight and height are built upon 
rock very much expense is saved, many calculations are dis¬ 
pensed with, and the danger of any settlement is reduced to a 
minimum. 


164 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


STEEL COLUMNS—NEW NETHERLANDS. 

Column Marked No. 17. 



Length. 

Outside Plates. 

Webs. 


Ft. 

In. 

No. 

Size in In. 

No. 

Size in In. 

No. 

Cellar . 

12 

9 

6 

20 XU 

4 

I3X| 

4 

Basement . 

12 

9 

4 4 

I8XH 

4 4 

( 4 

4 4 

1st story . 

17 

6 

4 i 

I6XU 

4 4 

i 4 

4 4 

2d “ . 

13 

4 4 

4 4 

16 xf 

6 6 

4 ( 

4 4 

3d “ . 

12 

4 4 

4 

i6Xi 

44 

4 4 

i 4 

4th “ . 

(< 

44 

< i 

i6x| 

44 

41 

4 4 

5th “ . 

“ 

t( 

44 

i6Xf 

%i 

4 4 

“ 

6th “ . 

11 

i 4 

4 t 

4» 

4 i 

T 3X| 

4 4 

7th “ . 

< < 

4 i 

4 4 

<4 

4 4 

I3X$ 

4 i 

8th “ . 

4 4 

O 

44 

1 6 X jq 

2 

I3X| 

44 I 

9th “ . 

» ( 

a 

2 

i6X| 

I 

8X| 

z 

4 

10th “ . 


* 4 

4 4 

16XH 

1 4 

< 4 

< < 

nth “ . 

‘ i 

4 • 

4 4 

i5Xi 

4i 

44 


12th “ . 

* i 

• i 

none 


(t 

44 

• * 

13th “ ...... 

II 

6 

< < 


4 % 

4 4 


14th “ . 

12 

3 

f 4 


4 4 

8XH 

< i 

15th “ . 

12 

0 

4 * 


( 6 

7Xi 


16th “ . 

11 

6 

4 4 


i i 

6 XtV 

•* 

17th “ . 

13 

6 



( 4 

5iXi 



Angles. 


Load, 

Tons. 


Size in In. 


6X4Xtf 


855 


808 


<< 


bars. 


763 

718 

673 

628 

583 

539 

494 

449 


6iX3lX| 

4 4 


6tVX3t 9 ^ Xxf 
6&X 3f XU 
5 tb 

4 X 3 1 V X t 7 6 
3X 2 i Xi 


404 

359 

314 

270 

225 

190 

135 

90 

45 


Columns Marked 25, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 45, 46, 49, 50. 


Cellar . 

12 

9 

4 

20 X| 

Basement . 

12 

9 

4 4 

20 X|! 

1st story . 

17 

6 

44 

20 Xf 

: 2 d “ . 

13 

4 4 

44 

i 8 Xf 

3 d “ . 

12 

44 

4 4 

i 6 Xf 

4th “ . 

i 4 

4 4 

4t 

16XI 

5th “ . 

“ 

44 

4 4 

i6X£ 

6th “ . 

“ 

4 4 

2 

i6Xi 

7 th “ . 

4 4 

44 

4 4 

tbxH 

8th “ . 

12 

O 

4 4 

i6Xi 

9th “ . 

1 4 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

10th “ . 

4 4 

4 4 

none 

»< 


nth “ ___ 

4 4 

4 i 


12th “ . 

4 4 

4 6 

4 4 


13th “ . 

iath “ . 

II 

6 

4 4 


12 

q 

4 4 








an 

gles. 


2 

13X1 

4 

6X4XU 

630 


4 4 

| «< 

4 4 

593 

4 4 

“ 

4 4 

4 4 

558 

4 4 

“ 

* 

4 4 

5i8 



4 4 

4 i 

489 




• 4 

453 


“ 


4 4 

419 



z 

bars. 


I 

8 X| 

4 

61X3SX1 

384 

44 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

« 4 

349 





314 

4 4 

8 Xf 

44 

6X3iXf 

280 

4 t 

8 X 1 

4 4 

61X31X1 

245 

4 4 

8 X| 

4 4 

6X3iXf 

210 

4 4 

8 Xf 

4 4 

dgVXSitfXf 

61X3SX1 

175 

4 4 

8 Xi 

44 

138 


8X1 

4 4 

6X3iX! 

105 



















































































THE NEW NE THE ELAND, NEW YORK. 


165 


Wall Thicknesses.—The thickness of the front walls fac¬ 
ing Fifth Avenue and Fifty-ninth Street are, for the cellar 3 ft. 
4 in.; basement, 3 ft.; first story, 2 ft. 8 in.; second, third, 
fourth, and fifth stories, 2 ft. ; sixth, seventh, and eighth, 1 ft. 
8 in.; ninth to and including fourteenth story, 1 ft. 6 in. The 
fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth stories are in the inclina¬ 
tion of the roof. 

The walls of the light-court are all twelve inches in thick¬ 
ness and supported by the channel-girder and cast-iron plate, 
as shown in the plan and section of the wall, Fig. 71. The 




Fig. 


71 



Fig. 73. 


columns, as well as the face of girders in this light-court wall, 
are faced with 4-in. enamelled brick. 

Over the head of each window, supporting the entire thick¬ 
ness of wall, is a stone and cast-iron lintel, and at the bottom 
of windows a stone sill is used. The columns are also encased 
on the inside by a 4-in. facing of terra-cotta blocks. This entire 


























































































66 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


construction enclosing the court starts from the level of the 
second story, and extends to the roof or to the top of seven¬ 
teenth story and topped out by a blue-stone coping. 

The front walls, facing on Fifty-ninth Street and Fifth Ave¬ 
nue from the cellar to the eighth story, are shown by the plan 
and section Fig. 73. The channel extending along the wall is 
the floor channel, which receives the floor arches. Fig. 72 
represents the plan and section of walls above the eighth story; 
the beams and outside channel support the wall, while the 
inside channel supports the floor arches. 

Hotel Waldorf. 

The Hotel Waldorf, which Henry J. Hardenbergh, archi¬ 
tect, has planned and built for William Waldorf Astor, situated 
at the corner of Thirty-third Street and Fifth Avenue, New 
York, covers a plot of ground two hundred and forty-nine feet 
six inches (249 ft. 6 in.) on Thirty-third Street, and ninety-eight 
feet nine inches (98 ft. 9 in.) on Fifth Avenue. The construc¬ 
tion is entirely fireproof, and a variation of the skeleton con¬ 
struction as heretofore described. The walls simply carry their 
own weight, while the floors and their loads are supported upon 
cast-iron columns built in with the masonry. The constructive 
work is protected by terra-cotta and other fireproof material. 

The style of the building is in the German renaissance of 
the sixteenth century. The first two stories of the front are 
built of heavy blocks of brown stone ; the third, to and includ¬ 
ing the ninth, of red pressed brick, trimmed with elaborately 
carved brown stone and terra-cotta, while the three upper 
stories are in the angle of the picturesque roof of gables and 
towers—a total of twelve stories above the sidewalk. 

Floor Plan.—The plan Fig. 75 shows a typical floor of 
the building, divided into light-courts, halls, stairways, and 
rooms. The east court, nearest Fifth Avenue, is 13 ft. wide 
by 65 ft. long; the extreme west court is 13 ft. wide by 58 ft. 




HOTEL WALDORF. 



1 67 

long, and the centre or garden court is 40 by 50 ft. Skylights 
of iron, glass, and copper cover the first story at the bottom of 
the east and west court, while the first story of the garden 
court is covered with a revolving dome skylight 107 ft. in cir¬ 
cumference, constructed of cast-iron, glass, and copper. 

The main stairway, opposite the three elevators, and the 


Fig. 74.—The Waldorf. 

stairway from the long hall, are constructed of Cast-iron strings, 
cast-iron risers, and white marble treads, guarded by orna¬ 
mental wrought-iron and cast-iron railings. The elevator 
fronts are also constructed of the same material, and enclosed 






168 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


on the front with exquisitely wrought grille-work; the lower 
stories have the jambs of the elevator enclosure covered with 
onyx and glass. 



EAST 

FIFTH AVENUE 
Fig. 75.—Typical Floor Plan. 


The elevator enclosure of the west side is constructed of 


















HOTEL WALDORF. 1 69 

wire-work and angle-iron, surrounded by a staircase built of 
cast-iron strings, cast risers, and slate treads. 

Beam Plan.—On account of the construction being simi¬ 
lar throughout, only that portion of the building is shown 



bounded by Fifth Avenue and the east light-court; the plan 
represents the arrangement of the columns, girders, and beams 
above the first story. 























































































170 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 

The columns are so arranged upon the plan, Fig. 76, to not 
interfere with the planning of the rooms; the beams and gir¬ 
ders being spaced to support 175 lbs. per square foot of fioor 
surface, which includes the total live and dead load. The 
cross-girders are two 15" X 125 lbs., and two 15" X 150 lbs. 
per yard I-beams, depending upon the span ; the beams of the 
24.0 span are 15" X 125 lbs. per yard, of the 19.2 span 10J" X 90 
lbs. per yard, with smaller beams in the shorter spans, all spaced 
from 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. 4 in. centres. 

The columns range from 16" x 16" X in the basement 
to 7" x 7" X £" in the roof. The connections with the floor 
beams and girders are made similar to the detail of cast-iron 
columns with iron girders under chapter on Column Connec¬ 
tions. The outer or wall columns of this portion of the plan, 
as well as those throughout the building, extend through the 
entire height of the masonry, resting upon cast-iron foot-blocks 
and rock bottom. The inside columns, or those marked 81 to 
84, 87 to 90, 93 and 94, are all supported upon heavy double 
box girders in the ceiling over the large dining-room of the 
first story; these girders are four in number, 4 ft. in depth at 
the centre, 32 in. in width, and 36 to 38 ft. in length, and sup¬ 
ported upon large cast-iron columns 16 in. in diameter. 

The slope of the entire roof is constructed of 6-in. light 
I-beam rafters, placed about 4 ft. centres and covered with 
3"X 3 ;/ X T’s 25 in. centres supporting porous roofing-blocks; 
then finished off with English roofing-tile. The entire con¬ 
struction of the gables and towers is similar to the main roof. 

The Postal Telegraph Building. 

The Postal Telegraph Building, as designed by George 
Edward Harding and Gooch, architects, at the corner of 
Murray Street and Broadway, New York, is a fireproof struct¬ 
ure fourteen stories in height, with a sub-basement and cellar 
below the sidewalk. The constructive material is of cast-iron 


THE POSTAL TELEGRAPH BUILDING. 


171 


columns and steel floor beams and girders throughout. Above 
the sixth story the walls are carried on steel girders, thus 
economizing the floor space on the lower stories. 

The entrance is 30 feet wide, semicircular in shape, and 
from it the doors leading to the main hall, store, messenger, 



Fig. 77.— The Postal Telegraph Building, New York. 

and despatch rooms. This circular entrance is trimmed largely 
with choice marbles, with which material the main hall, as well 
as all the halls, are wainscoted. 

Mosaic tiling is employed in the hallways and in other 






1 72 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 

prominent places throughout the building, which aid in making 
it one of the attractive and complete structures in Broadway. 

The entrance is flanked by massive piers projecting from 
the main walls, and capped by bas-reliefs representing light and 
electricity. 

Indiana limestone effectively carved and wrought is carried 
up four stories; above the fourth story the building is finished 
in light gray brick, with terra-cotta ornamentation. 

All partitions are constructed of terra-cotta or fireproof 
blocks; the fireproof floor arches are covered with a smooth 
surface of Portland cement. 

Iron stairways with marble steps extend from the main 
floor to roof, and from large passenger elevators give access 
to all the floors, while two express elevators are used exclu¬ 
sively for the four upper stories. 

The building covers a plot of ground 70 feet 2§ in. on 
Broadway by 155 feet 6J in. on Murray Street, with an exten¬ 
sion at the west end north from Murray Street. 

The beams and girders are arranged to support 175 lbs. per 
square foot of floor surface, the beams being 15 in. by 41 and 
12 in. by 32 lbs. per foot spaced from 4 to 4 feet 6 inches 
centre. 

The construction of the column joints and beam connec¬ 
tions are similar to those of the Waldorf. 


CHAPTER IX. 


WIND-BRACING. 

The subject of wind-bracing is receiving considerable atten¬ 
tion at the present time among those directly interested in the 
designing and constructing of high and narrow buildings. 

Very many criticisms by en¬ 
gineers have appeared from time 
to time in the weekly and monthly 
periodicals ; but we have failed to 
see any system, with one or two 
exceptions, proposed that would 
meet the full requirements of 
architects. 

It is no doubt a difficult prob¬ 
lem at the least, and whether 
lateral bracing is adopted will de¬ 
pend in a great measure upon 
examples of buildings which have 
been previously built, and which 
seem to be perfectly secure from 
all lateral displacement. 

In using columns and girders 
made up of plates and angles with 
knec-braces , as those shown under 
.chapter on Column Connections, a 
great amount of rigidity is secured, 
and these connections will serve 
Fig. 78.—Venetian Building, \ n the majority of cases where the 

Chicago, III. regular transverse bracing would 

interfere with the necessary openings in the partition and 
otherwise with the planning of the structuie. 



173 






174 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 

The action of the wind against the side of a building pro¬ 
duces the effects of overturning and shear, both greatest at 
the highest point of external resistance, which is the roof of 
adjoining building, if there be any, or otherwise the surface of 
the ground. The overturning or the lift on the windward side 
is likely always to be less than the resistance of dead weight; 
but the shear is liable to be overlooked, and is probably the 
cause of the collapse of most of the buildings destroyed by 
wind, especially during construction, while the walls are newly 
set. 

Wind-pressure.—Experimenters upon the subject of wind- 
pressure assume that the horizontal pressure of wind against 
an inclined surface, as a roof, is about I lb. per square foot per 
degree of inclination to the horizontal. For example, if the 
roof has an inclination of 30 degrees with the horizontal, the 
pressure of the wind will be about 30 lbs. per square foot of sur¬ 
face. Roofs are generally designed for pressures averaging 
about 40 lbs. per square foot, but the sides upon which the 
roof rests for little or none. 

The experiments of the Forth bridge engineers, and also 
other experiments, show conclusively that the pressure per 
unit of surface is less over a large area than over a small one, 
and what intensity of wind-pressure it is proper to assume upon 
a high building is an important question to settle. We are 
well aware that wind develops considerable energy at times, 
and we cannot expect to resist its utmost power in the design¬ 
ing of the structure ; but we can at least estimate for high 
velocities of wind, say from 30 to 50 lbs. per square foot, and 
low intensities of strain in the material. 

Wind-bracing in the Venetian Building, Chicago, Ill.— 
An article by C. T. Purdy, C.E., in the Engineering News , of 
December, 1891, describes in detail the wind-bracing used in 
the Venetian Building, Chicago. 

The Venetian Building is probably as well braced and 


WIND-BRACING. 175 

its bracing as well disposed as any building using a system 
of lateral braces. 

Fig. 79 is a diagram of the 
floors of this building, show¬ 
ing the arrangement of the 
columns and position of the 
bracing. 

Fig. 80 shows the position of 
the struts and diagonals and the 
position they occupy in relation 
to the floors. 

The struts of the first and 
second stories are i foot 9 in. 
below the next story above, and 
those above slightly less. 

Fig. 81 is a strain sheet for 
the wind-bracing, excepting only 
the column strains, which were 
included in the schedule given 
for the vertical loads on the 
columns. 

The dead weight of the 
floors is taken at 100 lbs. per 
square foot. The live load on 
the first floor 80 lbs., and floors 
above 60 lbs. The whole of the Fig. 79.— Typical Floor Plan of 
dead load and about one half Venetian Building, Chicago, III. 
the live load is carried into the columns. 

The calculations of the strains given on the diagram were 
made as follows : Each set of bracing was figured to resist the 
wind-force for an area equal to half the height of a story and 
half the height of the next one above by 21 ft. 7 in. multiplied 
by 40 lbs., the calculated wind-pressure per square foot of 
surface. 

The total shear at any of these points —that is, at any floor 




































































176 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


level—is equal to the sums of the shears acting directly on the 

points above it. It has not 
been deemed necessary, 
however, to carry the whole 
amount of this shear into 
the bracing, as in any build¬ 
ing the dead weight of the 
structure itself acts to some 
extent to counteract the 
distorting effect due to lat¬ 
eral force. 

These shears are reduced 
to some extent on this ac¬ 
count. The bracing is then 
made to resist 70 per cent 
of the wind-pressure. 

All the columns affected 
by this bracing have been 
made continuous from the 
basement to the second 
floor. 

In the cases where the 
rods come down to the first 
floor level the bottom strut 
is connected to the columns 
so as to take both tension 
and compression horizon¬ 
tally, as well as to resist the 

vertical component of the 
Part Transverse Section and Wind- rod strain . This insuresthe 

resistance of both columns 
to the horizontal thrust of 
the strut, whichever pair of rods is strained, and the columns 
are calculated to resist the bending moment incurred, as well 
as to carry their regular column load. 



strain Diagram of the Venetian 
Building. 





































































WIND-BRACING. 


1 77 


The horizontal struts from the first to the eighth floor are 
made of two nine-inch channels, arranged somewhat similar to 
those shown on the Havemeyer Building; flat latticing 2\ X i 
in., being used top and bottom in place of a plate. 

Above the eighth floor lighter channels were used. 

The struts are reinforced at the pier points to resist the 
bending moment of the strut caused by moving the pier 
centre so far from the centre of the column. 

The diagonal steel rods are all dimensioned for 20,000 lbs. 
unit strain, and no rod is less than $ inch square. 

All these rods are provided with turn-buckles. 

The channel struts are so arranged between the columns 
that the rods pass each side of the column girders, as shown 
on Fig. 80. By this arrangement they do not interfere with 
the door-openings in the partitions. 

There is but slight connection made to these columns by 
the horizontal struts. The struts are planed at both ends and 
no clearance is allowed for connection, so that they have 
butting joints to the columns. Open holes are provided for 
four rivets connecting the columns, but these are hardly 
necessary. 

Underneath the end of the strut is a solid cast-iron block, 
and underneath the block are two bracket-angles, secured to 
the column with sufficient rivet area to resist the vertical com¬ 
ponent of the rods in this direction. Above the end of the 
strut is another cast-iron block, planed on top and bottom to 
fit in tightly between the strut and the cap plate of the 
column. This block is made to fit the recess made by the 
flanges of the Z-bars so closely that the f-inch cap plate is 
brought into direct shear entirely around three sides of the 
block. The shear resistance of the plate together with the 
weight of the beam directly upon it are more than enough to 
resist the upward vertical component of the rods. The use of 
cast-iron blocks in this connection has been found very con¬ 
venient, for it often occurs that the bracket angles cannot be 


i;8 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


brought directly under the channels of the strut, and the 
medium between the strut and the bracket angles must act as 
a beam as well as a filler. 

From the above system of bracing we find that every 
weight caused by the horizontal wind-pressure against a building 
is transmitted through its own system of triangles to the base or 
foundation . 

The load on any brace is equal to the sum of all the weights 
upon its system between it and the upper portion or unsupported 
end of the building. 

In the majority of cases the wind-pressure need not be 
considered below the fifth or sixth story, this being the aver¬ 
age height of adjoining buildings. 

Curtain Walls. 

Section 485 of the New York Building Law, given in 
Chapter I of this volume, describes the thicknesses and 
manner of supporting the curtain walls of the skeleton frame, 
and will not be repeated. In making a comparison between 
that required by the skeleton frame and the old method we 
find that considerable space is gained on the inside measure¬ 
ments of the building. In the ordinary method, by the same 
law, in an example of a warehouse, store, factory of, say, twelve 
stories (150 feet in height): 

“ If over 85 feet in height and not over 100 feet in height, 
the walls shall not be less than 28 inches thick to the height of 
25 feet or to the nearest tier of beams to that height; thence 
not less than 24 inches thick to the height of 50 feet or to the 
nearest tier of beams to that height ; thence not less than 20 
inches thick to the height of 75 feet or to the nearest tier of 
beams to that height; and thence not less than 16 inches thick 
to the top. 

“ If over 100 feet in height each additional 25 feet in height 
or part thereof, next above the curb, shall be increased 4 


WIND-BRACING. 179 

inches in thickness, the upper ioo feet of wall remaining the 
same as specified for a wall of that height. 


Or, by the ordinary method 


1 st story. .. 


2d “ ... 

<< u 

3d “ ... 

..32 “ 

4th “ ... 

u u 

5th “ ... 

.28 “ 

6th “ 

<< u 

By the skeleton construction 

ist story... 


2d “ ... 

u «< 

3d “ .. . 

«< (( 

4th “ ... 

(( << 

5th “ .. 

. 16 “ 

6th “ 

<« <( 


7th story.24 inches 

8th “ “ “ 

9th “ 20 “ 

10th “ .“ 

nth “ 16 “ 

12th “ “ “ 


7th story. 


8th “ . 

<« << 

9th .. 


10th “ ., 

<« «« 

nth “ . 

<« a 

12th “ . 

<( u 


The height from floor to floor is generally 12 feet 6 inches. 

Curtain-wall Supports.—The simplest supports for cur¬ 
tain walls are these girders made up of beams and channels, 
as shown in Figs. 82 and 84. These girders extend between 
the wall columns at about the floor levels and are made to re¬ 
ceive the floor arch next 
the wall, as shown in the 
detail, which also shows 
the section of the sleepers, 
floor arches, and concrete 
filling. 

The outer beam of 
the girder is placed 4 
inches from the party 
line, so that a width of brick can be built in to properly fire¬ 
proof the girder. Then, to support the overhanging portion of 
























































i8o 


SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 



the brick wall, a plate rests upon and is secured to the tcp of 
the girder. 

Probably a better manner of building this outer 4 or 8 inch 
wall would be by that shown at the section of the channels, 
Fig. 84. The channel flanges are turned inside, so as to give a 
perfectly square and smooth surface for building this over¬ 
hanging portion of the 
wall. Then again if the 
curtain wall occurs along 
the wall of a higher build¬ 
ing the space back of the 
channel is clear, the plate 
being secured after the 
section is filled in. 

This same thing may 
be accomplished in heav¬ 
ier walls when two beams are not sufficient and plate or lattice 
girders are used, as shown in the sections, Fig. 83. In Fig. 85 
the plate girder is raised sufficiently to receive the floor arch 
upon the bottom flange; then the joint of columns is about 
the centre of the girder. In Fig. 85 an angle is riveted to 
the web of the plate girder to receive the floor arch. 

The manner of connecting these wall girders is shown in 
the chapter on Column Connections. 

The entire fronts of these skeleton buildings may be sup¬ 
ported in such a manner that an entire story or number of 
stories may be removed without injury to the other portion of 
the structure—or, in other words, an exterior finish entirely in¬ 
dependent of the rest of the construction, an example of which 
is shown by Fig 86 (a section of the spandrel under the front 
windows of the Venetian Building, Chicago, Ill.); the outside 
view or perspective is shown by Fig. 78, Chapter VIII. 

These spandrel beams are placed over the windows in such 
a way that all the load is taken off from the window-caps, how¬ 
ever it may appear in the finish. The outside is covered with 





























WIND-BRACING. 


181 


brick, terra-cotta, tile, marble, or granite, or combination of these 
materials, as the architect may design, supported by the above 
spandrel beams. The section, Fig. 87, represents a portion of 
the front wall of the Ashland Block, Chicago, Ill.; the wall is 
only 8 in. thick, and the spandrel channel is 15 in. by 32 lbs. 
per foot, with an angle riveted to the upper edge to make a 



Fig. 87. 


Fig. 86. 


broad support for the wall. In Fig. 86 the wall is 16 in. thick, 
and to support the overhanging thickness cast brackets are 
secured to a 20 in. X 64 lbs. per foot I-beam, upon which is 
secured a 5-in. Z-bar. In each case the terra-cotta window 
head is secured to the construction. 

Figs. 88 and 89 represent other modes of supporting the 
spandrel walls. Fig. 88 is another section of the Ashland 
Block, and Fig. 89 is a section of the spandrel walls of the Fair 
Building, Chicago. In all of these cases it will be noticed that 
the spandrel beams or girders connect to the columns near 
their centres; the building line represents the faces of piers or 
face of the building. 

An excellent arrangement for. radiators under the window- 



























SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS . 


182 


sills is shown in Fig. 89; the spandrej wall is only 8| in. in 
thickness at this point. 

In almost all of the above sections the spandrel beams are 
so arranged, as to size and position, that the floor beams are 



Fig. 89. 


Fig. 88. 


not required to be framed; this, if carried out extensively 
throughout the construction, will save considerable in the cost 
of the building. 


Foundations, 


The failures of the other portions of the work throughout 
a building due to faulty workmanship are rare in comparison 
with those due to defective foundations; therefore, a few re¬ 
marks are inserted on account of the importance the subject 
bears to the construction of these high buildings, but for fuller 
information the reader should refer to works which treat solely 
upon “ Masonry Construction.” 

In designing the foundations of walls and piers when they 
rest upon a yielding stratum, proper provision must be made 
for the uniform distribution of the weight, and to form such a 









































WIND-BRACING . 


183 


solid base for this superstructure that no movement shall take 
place after its erection. But all structures built of coarse 
masonry, whether of stone or brick, will settle to a certain 
extent ; and, with few exceptions, all soils will become com¬ 
pressed under the weight of almost any building. 

The main object, therefore, is to proportion the different 
loads so that the bearing unit of ground area will be equal, 
and a uniform settlement of the completed structure is ensured. 

To Determine the Nature of the Soil.—If the nature of 
the soil upon which the building is to be constructed cannot be 
determined by excavations made for surrounding buildings, 
wells, etc., proper arrangements must be made for testing the 
subsoil by boring holes at intervals considerably deeper than the 
walls are intended. It will usually be sufficient to examine the 
soil with an iron bar, driving it from 4 to 5 feet deeper than 
the foundation trenches. 

In soft soil, a small gas-pipe is driven with a maul from a 
temporary scaffold, the height of which will depend upon the 
length of the section of the pipe. Soundings 30 to 40 feet 
deep can be made in this manner. 

Foundations on Rock.—To prepare a rock bed for a foun¬ 
dation, cut away the lower and decayed portions of the rock, 
and dress it to a plane surface as nearly perpendicular to the 
direction of the pressure as practicable. If there are any 
fissures they should be filled with concrete. 

The ultimate crushing strength of stone, as determined by 
crushing small cubes, ranges from 180 tons per square foot for 
the softest stone to 1800 tons per square foot for the hardest. 

The safe bearing power of rock should be about one-tenth 
of the ultimate strength of cubes; that is to say, the safe-bear¬ 
ing power of solid rock is not less than 18 tons per square foot 
for the softest, and 180 tons for the hardest. Almost any rock 
when well-bedded will bear the heaviest load than can be 
brought upon it by any masonry construction. 


184 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 

Foundations upon Clay. —Foundations on clay should be 
laid at such depths as to be unaffected by the weather; since 
clay, at even considerable depths, will gain and lose consider¬ 
able water as the seasons change. The bearing power of clayey 
soils can be very much improved by drainage or by preventing 
the penetration of water. When coarse sand or gravel is 
mixed with the clay, its supporting power is greatly increased, 
being greater in proportion as the quantity of these materials 
is greater. When they are present to such an extent that the 
clay is just sufficient to bind them together, the combination 
will bear as heavy loads as the softer rocks. 

From the experiments made in connection with the con¬ 
struction of the capitol at Albany, N. Y., upon blue clay con¬ 
taining from 60 to 90 per cent of alumina, and the remainder 
being fine siliceous sand, less than 6 tons per square foot was 
the extreme supporting power, and 2 tons per square foot the 
load which might be safely imposed. 

The safe load allowed upon ordinary clay if in danger of 
being saturated by water, is from 1 \ to 2 tons per square foot ; 
if kept dry, 3 to 4 tons. 

Foundations upon Sand. —Sandy soils vary from coarse 
gravel to fine sand, and when mixed make one of the best and 
firmest of foundations. Sand well cemented with clay and 
compacted, if protected from water, will safely carry 4 to 6 
tons per square foot. 

Foundations upon Piles. —A pile is generally understood 
to be a round timber driven into the soil; or, what is called a 
bearing- pile, one used to sustain a vertical load. 

Spruce and hemlock answer for foundation-piles in soft or 
medium soil, or for piles always under water; the hard pines, 
elm, and beech for firmer soils; the hard oaks for still more 
compact soils. 

The following paragraph from the New York Building Law 
of 1892 makes provision for the construction of pile and other 
foundations : 


WIND-BRACING . 


185 


“ Every building, except buildings erected upon wharves or 
piers on the water-front, shall have foundations laid not less 
than four feet below the surface of the earth, on the solid 
ground, or level surface of rock, or upon piles or ranging timbers. 

“ Piles intended for a wall, pier, or post to rest upon shall 
not be less than five inches in diameter at the smallest end , and 
shall not be spaced more than 30 inches on centres, or nearer, 
if required by the superintendent of buildings, and they shall 
be driven to a solid bearing. 

“No pile shall be weighted with a load exceeding 40,000 
pounds. The tops of all piles shall be cut off below the lowest 
water-line. When required, concrete shall be rammed down 
in the interspaces between the heads of the piles to a depth 
and thickness of not less than 12 inches and for 1 foot in width 
outside of the piles. 

“ When ranging and capping timbers are laid on piles for 
foundations they shall be of hardwood, not less than 6 inches 
thick, and properly joined together, and their tops laid below 
the water-line. 

“ When crib-footings of iron or steel are used below the 
water-level, the same shall be entirely coated with coal-tar, 
paraffine varnish, or other suitable preparation before being 
placed in position. 

“ When footings of iron or steel for columns are placed 
below the water-level, they shall be similarly coated for preser¬ 
vation against rust.” * 

“ All base-stones shall be well bedded and crosswise, edge 
to edge. If stepped-up footings of brick are used in place of 
stone above the concrete, the steps o.r offsets, if laid in single 
courses, shall not exceed if in.; or, if laid in double courses, 
then each shall not exceed 3 in., starting with the brick-work 
covering the entire width of the concrete, so as to properly 
distribute the load to be imposed thereon.” 

* For foundation-walls and footings, refer to article under New York Build¬ 
ing Law relating to skeleton construction, Chapter I. 



SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS. 


186 


“ If in place of a continuous foundation-wall isolated piers 
are to be built to support the superstructure, where the nature 
of the ground and the character of the building make it neces¬ 
sary, inverted arches shall be turned between the piers, at least 
12 in. thick and of the full width of the piers, and resting upon 
a continuous bed of concrete of sufficient area and at least 18 
in. thick. Or two footing-courses of large stone may be used, 
the bottom course to be laid crosswise, edge to edge, and the 
top course laid lengthwise, end to end ; or one course of con¬ 
crete and one course of stone. The stones shall not be less 
than io in. thick in each course, and the concrete shall not be 
less than 18 in. thick, and the area of the lower course shall be 
equal to area of the base-course that would be required under 
a continuous wall; and the outside pier shall be secured to the 
second pier with suitable iron rods and plates.” 

Foundation upon Steel Rails and I-beams. —Steel, usu¬ 
ally in the form of railroad rails or I-beams, is used instead of 

timber in foundations. The rails 
or I-beams are placed side by side 
as shown (Fig. 90), and concrete is 
rammed in between them. 

The important advantage steel 
has over wood is that the offset can 
be much greater, and hence the 
foundations may be shallow and 
still not occupy the cellar-space. 

The foundation should be pre¬ 
pared by first laying a bed of con¬ 
crete to a depth of from 4 to 12 in., 
and then placing upon this a row of 
I-beams or rails. They should be 
placed far enough apart to permit 
the introduction of the concrete fill¬ 
ing and its proper tamping between 
the beams. 




Fig. 90.—Steel-rail 
Foundation. 




















































WIND-BRA CING. 


187 


Unless the concrete is of unusual thickness, it will not be 
advisable to exceed 20-in. spacing, since otherwise the concrete 
may not be of sufficient strength to properly transmit the up- * 
ward pressure of the beams. 

The area of the foundation having been determined and its 
centre having been located with reference to the axis of the 
load, the next step is to determine how much narrower each 
footing-course may be than the one next below it. 

The projecting part of the footing resists as a beam, fixed 
at one end and uniformly loaded. 

The load is the pressure on the earth or on the next course 
below. The offset of such a course depends upon the amount 
of pressure and the transverse strength of the material. 

Evidently the size of beams required will depend upon 
their strength as cantilevers sustaining the upward reaction, 
which may be regarded as a uniformly distributed load. 

Then, for a beam fixed at one end and uniformly loaded, 


Safe load in lbs. = 


Coefficient 
~4 L ' 


The coefficients for all the different sizes of steel and iron 
beams are given in Chapter IV, “ Floor Loads and Floor 
Framing.” 





Compound Riveted Girders, 

AS APPLIED IN THE 

CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS. 


WITH NUMEROUS 

PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND TABLES . 


BY 

WILLIAM H. BIRKMIRE, 

AUTHOR OF “ARCHITECTURAL IRON AND STEEL ” AND 
“ SKELETON CONSTRUCTION IN BUILDINGS.” 


# 


NEW YORK: 

JOH N WILEY & SONS, 

53 East Tenth Street. 

1893. 



PREFACE. 


In order to facilitate the calculation attending the construc¬ 
tion of Wrought Iron and Steel Riveted Girders, the author 
has endeavored in this work to supply the link which separates 
Theory from Practice. Its object may be briefly stated. A 
riveted girder is to be designed ; the span, depth, and loads are 
known, the strains are calculated by the well-known bending- 
moment formulae, and largely by the graphic method; lastly, 
the details of construction are fully illustrated. 

Touching the question of accuracy, it is scarcely necessary 
to notice the slight difference that may arise between the two 
methods, i.e., working out the usual formulae, or by measuring 
from the graphic diagrams. The time consumed in wading 
through a complicated series of equations to reach a few meas¬ 
urements is objectionable when at least such measurements 
can at once be had by the graphic method. 

This Avork does not investigate exceptional or extremely 
scientific riveted girders, but more especially those of a type 
now extensively adopted and constructed by well-known archi¬ 
tectural iron workers. 

The diagrams and the various examples explaining the 
Author’s method are submitted to architects and architectural 
students with the hope that they will become a medium of use¬ 
fulness to them in the routine of office work. 

William H. Biricmire. 


New York, 1893. 





TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


PART I. 

THE STRAINS IN COMPOUND RIVETED GIRDERS. 

PAGE 

Compound riveted girders described. i 

Bending moments. 2 

Flanges. '... 4 

Shearing forces on the webs. 5 

Buckling of webs. 7 

Stiffeners.8 

Riveting. 8 

Frict on of plates. 10 

Proportioning rivets. 11 

Rivets connecting webs with flanges. 12 

Spacing rivets according to strain produced in the flanges by the bending 

moments..•. 15 

Proportioning girders. 16 

Shearing and bearing resistance of rivets (Table). 16 

Details of construction. 17 

Extract from the New York Building Law in relation to riveted girders.... 18 

To calculate the approximate weight of girder before its dimensions are 

fixed. 19 

Splicing. 20 

PART II. 

QUALITY OF MA TERIAL. 

Wrought-iron. 21 

Limit of elasticity of wrought-iron. 21 

Ultimate strength of wrought-iron. 21 

Rivet iron. 21 

Mild steel.. .. 21 


v 
























VI 


TABLE OF COX TENTS. 


PAGE 

Ultimate strength and elongation. 22 

Rivet steel. 22 

Painting. 22 

PART III. 

EXAMPLE I. 

Girder supporting a concentrated load at centre of span. 23 

Construction of flanges in a girder supporting a concentrated load at 

centre. 25 

Flanges reduced in area towards the supports in a girder supporting a con¬ 
centrated load at centre. . 26 

Webs proportioned in a girder supporting a concentrated load at centre of 

span. 2S 

Stiffeners in a girder supporting a concentrated load at centre of span. 28 

Rivet spacing in a girder supporting a concentrated load at centre of span. 29 
Graphical representation of bending moments and shearing forces in a 

girder with a concentrated load at centre of span. 30 

List of material and details of a girder supporting a concentrated load at 

centre. 32 

Areas of angles with even legs (Table). 33 

“ “ “ “ uneven legs (Table). 33 

Sectional area in inches of rivet-holes in plates of various thicknesses 

(Table). 34 

Gross area of plates of various thicknesses (Table). 35 

Safe buckling value of web plates in wrought-iron (Table). 35 

Shearing value of wrought-iron web plates (Table). 36 

“ “ “ steel web plates (Table). 37 

EXAMPLE II. 

Girder supporting one concentrated load not at centre of span. 3S 

Construction of flanges in a girder supporting one concentrated load not at 

centre. 40 

Flanges reduced in area in a girder supporting one concentrated load not 

at centre. 41 

Webs proportioned in a girder supporting a concentrated load not at centre 42 

Stiffeners in a girder with one concentrated load not at centre. 43 

Spacing of rivets in a girder with one concentrated load not at centre. 43 

Graphical representation of bending moments and shearing forces in a girder 

with one concentrated load not at centre of span. 44 

List of material and details of a girder supporting one concentrated load 

not at centre of span. j6 

























TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


vii 

EXAMPLE III. 

PAGE 

Girder supporting a uniformly distributed load. . 47 

Construction of flanges in a girder supporting a uniformly distributed load. 49 
Flanges reduced in area towards the supports of a girder supporting a uni¬ 
formly distributed load.. 49 

Webs proportioned in a girder supporting a uniformly distributed load.... 50 

Stiffeners in a girder supporting a uniformly distributed load. 51 

Spacing of rivets in a girder supporting a uniformly distributed load. 51 

Method of drawing parabolas.. 52 

Parabola by the construction of a diagram. 53 

Graphical representation of bending moments and shearing forces in a 

girder supporting a uniformly distributed load.. . 54 

List of material and details of a girder supporting a uniformly distributed 

load. 55 

EXAMPLE IV. 

Girder supporting two concentrated loads. 56 

Construction of flanges in a girder supporting two concentrated loads. 58 

Flanges reduced in area towards the supports in a girder supporting two 

concentrated loads. 59 

Webs proportioned in a girder supporting two concentrated loads. 60 

Stiffeners in a girder supporting two concentrated loads. 61 

Spacing of rivets in a girder supporting two concentrated loads. 61 

Graphical representation of bending moments and shearing forces in a 

girder supporting two concentrated loads. 62 

List of material and details of a girder supporting two concentrated loads. 64 

EXAMPLE V. 

Girder supporting two concentrated loads and a uniformly distributed load 65 
Construction of flanges in a girder supporting two concentrated loads and 

a uniformly distributed load. 67 

Webs proportioned in a girder supporting two concentrated loads and a 

Uniformly distributed load. 68 

Stiffeners in a girder supporting two concentrated loads and a uniformly 

distributed load... . 69 

Spacing of rivets in a girder supporting two concentrated loads and a uni¬ 
formly distributed load. 69 

Graphical representation of bending moments and shearing forces in a 
girder supporting two concentrated loads and a uniformly distributed 

load. 7 ° 

Flanges reduced in area towards the supports in a girder supporting two 
concentrated loads and a uniformly distributed load by the funicular 

polygon. 7 1 

List of material and details of a girder supporting two concentrated loads 

and a uniformly distributed load. 73 
























Vlll 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


EXAMPLE VI. 

PAGE 


Girder supporting three concentrated loads. 74 

Construction of flanges in a girder supporting three concentrated loads... 76 

Webs proportioned “ “ “ “ “ “ ... 77 

Stiffeners “ “ “ “ “ “ 78 

Spacing of rivets “ “ “ “ “ “ ... 78 

Flanges reduced in area towards the supports in a girder supporting three 

concentrated loads. 79 

Graphical description of bending moments and shearing forces in a girder 

supporting three concentrated loads. 80 

List of material and details of a girder supporting three concentrated 

loads. 82 


EXAMPLE VII. 

Girder supporting four concentrated loads... 83 

Construction of flanges in a girder supporting four concentrated loads. 85 

Webs proportioned “ “ “ “ “ “ 85 

Stiffeners “ “ “ “ “ “ 86 

Spacing of rivets “ “ “ “ “ “ 86 

Flanges reduced in area towards the supports in a girder supporting four 

concentrated loads. 87 

Graphical representation of the bending moments and shearing forces in a 


girder supporting four concentrated loads. 88 

List of material and details of a girder supporting four concentrated loads. 90 

EXAMPLE VIII. 

Steel girder supporting five concentrated loads. 91 

Determination of bending moments in a girder supporting five concentrated 

loads. 93 

Construction of flanges in a girder supporting five concentrated loads. 94 

Stiffeners “ “ “ “ “ “ . 95 

Spacing of rivets “ “ “ “ “ “ . 95 

Flanges reduced in area towards the supports in a girder supporting five 

concentrated loads. 96 

Girder fixed at one end and loaded with a concentrated load at the other, as 

a cantilever. 97 

Girder fixed at one end supporting a uniformly distributed load, as a canti¬ 
lever. 98 

Girder fixed at one end supporting more than one load, as a cantilever.... 99 

The relative strength of simple and cantilever girders; maximum vertical 

shear, bending moments, and deflection (Table). 99 

Modulus of elasticity of wrought-iron and steel in riveted girder as com¬ 
pared with solid sections, as I-beams. 99 

Moment of Inertia for Rectangular sections. 100 






















TABLE OF CONTENTS . 


ix 


PART IV. 


TABLES. 

PAGET 

Average weight in pounds of a cubic foot of various substances. ioi 

Weight of ioo rivets in pounds. 104 

Decimal equivalents for fractions of a foot. 105 

Number of U. S. gallons contained in circular tanks . 106 

Decimal equivalents for fractions of an inch. 106 

Weight per lineal foot of cast-iron columns. .... 107 

Weight of square cast-iron columns per lineal foot. 108 

Weight per foot of flat iron. 109 

Table of squares and cubes. ... hi 

Table of circles.. 115 


Shearing and bearing resistance of rivets. 16 

Areas of angles with even legs. 33 

“ “ “ “ uneven legs. 33 

Sectional area in inches of rivet-holes in plates of various thicknesses. 34 

Gross area of plates of various thicknesses. 35 

Safe buckling value of web plates (wrought-iron). 35 

Shearing value of wrought-iron web plates. 36 

“ “ “ steel web plates. 37 






















LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PART I. 

FIG. I'AGE 

1. Plate-girder section. i 

2. Plate-girder section with single flange plate. i 

3. Plate-girder section with three flange plates. r 

4. Box-girder section with three flange plates. 1 

5. Box girder-section with three webs. 1 

6. Girder with two loads supported upon a fulcrum. 3 

7. A simple girder supported at each end and load in middle. 3 

8. A lever held up with a weight at either end. 5 

9. A simple girder with load out of centre. 6 

10. A simple girder with a specified load out of centre. 6 

11. Two plates riveted with rivets in single shear. 12 

12. Plate-girder section with rivets in double shear. 12 

12 a. Box-girder section with rivets in single shear. 12 

13. Girder illustrating the strains on rivets connecting flange with web... 12 

PART III. 

14. Diagram of a girder with one concentrated load at centre. 23 

15. Diagram determining position of flange plates in a girder of one con¬ 

centrated load at centre. 26 

16. Section of plate girder with stiffeners bent around chord angles. 29 

17. Section of plate girder with straight stiffeners and fillers. 29 

18. Diagram of the graphical representation of bending moments and 

shearing forces of a plate girder with one concentrated load at 
centre. 31 

19. Detail of girder of one concentrated load at centre. 32 

20. Diagram of a girder with one concentrated load not at centre. 38 

21. Diagram determining position of flange plates in a girder of one con¬ 

centrated load not at centre. 41 

22. Diagram of the graphical representation of bending moments and 

shearing forces in a girder with one concentrated load at centre.. 45 

23. Detail of girder of one concentrated load not at centre. 46 

24. Diagram of a girder with a uniformly distributed load .. 47 

25. Diagram determining position of flange plates in a girder supporting a 

uniformly distributed load. 50 


xi 



























Xi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG. PAGB 

26. Diagram of a parabola, by ordinates from a tangent to a parabola at 

its vertex... 

27. Diagram of a parabola, by lines to two sides of an isosceles triangle.. 53 
2S. Diagram of the graphical representation of bending moments and 

shearing forces in a girder supporting a uniformly distributed 
load. 54 

29. Detail of girder supporting a uniformly distributed load. 55 

30. Diagram of a girder supporting two concentrated loads. 56 

31. Diagram determining position of flange plate in a girder supporting 

two concentrated loads. 59 

32. Diagram of the graphical representation of bending moments and 

shearing forces in a girder supporting two concentrated loads. 62 

33. Detail of girder supporting two concentrated loads. 64 

34. Diagram of a girder supporting two concentrated loads and one uni¬ 

formly distributed load. 66 

35. Diagram of the graphical representation of bending moments and 

shearing forces in a girder supporting two concentrated loads and 
one uniformly distributed load... 70 

36. Diagram determining position of flanged plates in a girder supporting 

two concentrated loads and a uniformly distributed load. 72 

37. Detail girder supporting two concentrated loads and a uniformly dis¬ 

tributed load. 73 

38. Diagram of a girder supporting three concentrated loads. 75 

39. Diagram determining position of flange plates in a girder supporting 

three concentrated loads. 79 

40. Diagram of the graphical representation of bending moments and 

shearing forces in a girder supporting three concentrated loads... 80 

41. Detail of girde, supporting three concentrated loads. 82 

42. Diagram of a girder supporting four concentrated loads. 84 $ 

43. Diagram determining position of flange plates in a girder of four con¬ 

centrated loads. 88 

44. Diagram of the graphical representation of bending moments and 

shearing forces in a girder supporting four concentrated loads.... 89 

45. Detail of girder supporting four concentrated loads. 90 

46. Diagram of a girder supporting five concentrated loads. 92 

47. Diagram determining position of flange plates in a girder supporting 

five concentrated loads. .... 96 

48. Diagram of a girder secured at one end (as a cantilever) and supporting 

a concentrated load at the other. 98 

49. Section of a plate girder, determining the notation used in the calcula¬ 

tion of the section for the moment of inertia. 100 

50. Section of a box girder, determining the notation used in the calcula¬ 

tion of the section for the moment of inertia. 100 
























70 COMPOUND RIVETED GIRDERS. 

The rivet spacing from e to R will be regulated by the 
horizontal strain at that point. 

At e, M = 737.625 ton-feet. 

737 623 

Horizontal strain = = 245.875 tons or 491,750 pounds, 

and then divided by 45JO = 109 rivets, to be placed a distance 
of 120 inches for one or 240 inches for both webs, spaced about 
2g inches (staggered) from e to R support. 

Graphical Representation for Two Concentrated Loads 
and a Uniform Load. —In the following diagram, Fig. 35, we 



have a combination of the previous examples. The uniform 
load to be considered is a system of equal and equidistant loads 


























































































































72 


COMPOUND RIVETED GIRDERS. 


maximum bending moment at F, draw FD at the same point; 
place the scale at any angle until it meets DD' perpendicular 
to FD at e, measuring 45.12 square inches of the top flange. 

For the two angles set off 5.86 square inches each at a and 
b, then one plate 16 X ! or 12 square inches at c, two plates 



16 X yi ° r 11 square inches each at d and c. Horizontal lines 
drawn to FD, and again lines drawn from FD parallel to RR f , 
intersecting the polygon and carried up to RR f , will give the 
position of the plate in each flange. The angles and adjoining 
plates to extend the full length of girder. The other plates to 
extend over the calculated distance to reach at least four cross- 
lines of rivets. 



















L / 3” -■— ---— 32 . - 



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Architectural Iron and Steel, 


AND ITS APPLICATION 

IN THE 

CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS. 


INCLUDING BEAMS AND GIRDERS IN FLOOR CONSTRUCTION, ROLLED IRON STRUTS, WROUGHT 
AND CAST-IRON COLUMNS, FIRE-PROOF COLUMNS, COLUMN CONNECTIONS, CAST-IRON LIN¬ 
TELS, ROOF TRUSSES, STAIRWAYS, ELEVATOR ENCLOSURES, ORNAMENTAL IRON, 

FLOOR LIGHTS AND SKYLIGHTS, VAULT LIGHTS, DOORS AND SHUTTERS, 

WINDOW GUARDS AND GRILLES, ETC., ETC., WITH 


SPECIFICATION OF IRONWORK. 


AND SELECTED PAPERS IN RELATION TO IRONWORK , FROM A REVISION 
OF THE PRESENT LAW BEFORE THE LEGISLATURE AFFEC'IING 
PUBLIC INTERESTS IN THE CITY OF NEW YORK , IN SO FAR 
AS THE SAME REGULATES THE CONSTRUCTION OF 

BUILDINGS IN SAID CITY . 


TABLES, 

SELECTED EXPRESSLY FOR THIS WORK, 

OF THE PROPERTIES OF BEAMS, CHANNELS, TEES AND ANGLES, USED AS BEAMS, STRUTS AND 
COLUMNS, WEIGHTS OF IRON AND STEEL BARS, CAPACITY OF TANKS, AREAS OF CIRCLES, 
WEIGHTS OF CIRCULAR AND SQUARE CAST-IRON COLUMNS, WEIGHTS OF 
SUBSTANCES, TABLES OF SQUARES, CUBES, ETC., WEIGHTS OF 
SHEET COPPER, BRASS AND IRON, ETC. 


BY 

WM. H. BIRKMIRE, 

jFullfi Wlustrateb. 

8VO, CLOTII.$3.50. 

NEW YORK: 

JOHN WILEY & SONS, 

53 East Tenth Street. 

1891. 


BOOK NOTICES. 


A book with Messrs. John Wiley & Son’s endorsement, as publishers, can 
generally be depended upon as being well written, and by some one who under¬ 
stands his subject, and Mr. Birkmire’s convenient work is no exception to the 
rule. Architects have long wanted just such a book as this, simple, practical, and 
comprehensive, for daily use in the office by draughtsmen engaged in laying-out 
iron-work.— American Architecture and Btiilding News, May 2, 1891. 

We are able to commend this work without hesitation to all of our readers. 

Architecture and Building . 

This book has made its appearance at an opportune moment and is worthy 
to take its place among the other valuable contributions to the literature dealing 
with structural problems which the same firm have published. The need of a 
practical work of reference dealing with the sizes, weights and strength of the 
different classes of iron and steel material used in modern buildings, combined 
with plain instruction in all the detail work and reliable data, has been well and 
adequately filled by the publication of Mr. Birkmire’s treatise. 

American Artisan, Chicago. 

The appearance of this book is timely and the treatment of the subjects 
involved fair and explicit. It should suffice to say that it would be difficult indeed 
to name any variety of architectural iron work the details of which, according to 
approved construction, would not be found illustrated and described. We believe 
the book merits and will receive a cordial reception from architects and engineers 
who have to do with building construction. It will certainly be of use and value 
to students of architecture and young draftsmen who wish to acquire familiarity 
with iron and steel building construction and details.— American Manufacturer. 

In this day of gigantic construction, when many architects think more of 
building to themselves monuments in lofty or striking structures than providing 
for the safety of the occupants, it is well for some careful person to come along 
and give us practical hints as to how much responsibility we should place on our 
girders of iron and steel, and to add to these hints tables showing sizes and 
weights, so that he who is in great haste, may find what is needed without 
recourse to the usual processes of computation. It appears that no important 
principle of metal construction has been omitted, nor has any been superficially 
treated. This, added to the numerous cuts and illustrations of a high order, 
renders the book most valuable to the builder as well as architect. 

Public Opinion, Washington, May 22, 1891. 

As a technical reference book it is invaluable from the fact that the designer 
of any piece of architectural iron work may find his weights and strains carefully 
calculated and in form exceedingly convenient. To those who do not care to go 
into the study of details and construction, and yet desire to avail themselves of 



BOOK NOTICES. 


the practice and experience of others who have made the use of iron and steel 
their special study, this work is of great value.— The National Builder , Chicago. 

Das Buch wird von einem in dieser Branche arbeitenden Fachmann warm 
empfohlen. Er schreibt u. A.: “ Das Buch, welches jeder Architect zur Hand 
haben sollte, behandelt erschopfend, was man nothig hat zu wissen fur das Ent- 
werfen und die Auffiihrung feuersicherer Gebaude. Der Verfasser, seit einer 
langen Reihe von Jahren in einem der grossten Architectural Iron Works als 
Bureauchef und Constructeur practisch thatig, hat diese Arbeit unternommen, 
weil er unter den vielen vorziiglichen Werken uber die Eisenarchitectur keines 
gefunden, welches als practisches Handbuch dienen konnte. Das Ziel, welches 
er sich gestellt, hat er vollkommen erreicht.” Wir fiigen dem bei, dass das Buch 
in jeder Hinsicht empfehlenswerth und permanent werthvoil als Lehr- und Nach- 
schlagebuch ist.— Der Techniker. 

Many “Builders’ Guides” and “Architects’ Pocketbooks’’ have been 
published, but they are as a rule too general in their remarks, and attempt to 
cover too much ground. Mr. Birkmire, however, has confined his efforts to 
explaining the use of iron, steel, etc., as applied to modern building, and beyond 
a few general tables has not attempted to write a treatise on building. This is the 
best point about the book. The information is well arranged and given in an 
intelligible manner, without much use of discouraging-looking calculations, 
which often alarm the architect and student. It will be a comfort to the archi¬ 
tectural student, and useful to the architect. The average builder might also 
learn a good deal from its pages.— Railroad Gazette , April 15, 1891. 

This is a decided improvement on the practice adopted in the various hand¬ 
books of manufacturers, because it enables the minimum section required to be 
calculated at once.— Architectural Era , May, 1891. 

Its scope is that of a handy reference book. It occupies a field not covered 
by any other publication and should be in the hands of every intelligent architect 
and builder in the country.— Artisan , Cincinnati , April, 1891. 

Now that iron is being used so much more every day in the construction of 
buildings and for decorative purposes as well, this book will be found most useful 
to architects, particularly as there are so few books treating of these subjects, and 
certainly none that we know of combining the different branches of iron work as 
this does. — Architecture and Building Monthly. 

In the opening chapter the author gives a brief and concise account of the 
method in use in transforming ore into commercial “ pig ” and that into steel ; 
from there on, the matter is all meat with no extraneous verbiage. The compu¬ 
tations and tables for figuring stress and determining the exact load any given 
piece of iron and steel will safely bear under the many varying conditions likely 
to occur will save a vast amount of labor to those making use of Mr. Birkmire’s 
book The chapters on specifications of iron-work and the numerous classified 
tables will be found of special interest. One marked and valuable feature is the 
excellence and practical character of the illustrations with which the work is 
liberally supplied.— American Contractor, April 18, 1S91. 


Books for Architects and Civil Engineers. 


KIDDER.—The Architect’s and Builder’s Pocket Book of Mensuration, 
Geometry, Trigonometry, Rules, Tables, and Formulas relating to the Strength 
and stability of Foundations, Walls, Buttresses, Piers, Arches, Posts, Ties, 
Beams, Girders, Trusses, Floors, Roofs, etc., etc. Statistics and Tables re¬ 
lating to Carpentry, Masonry, Draiuage, Painting and Glazing, Plumbing, 
Plastering, Rooting, Heating, and Ventilation, Weights of Materials, Ca¬ 
pacity and Dimensions of Churches, Theatres, Domes, Towers, Spires, etc., 
etc. By F. E. Kidder, C.E., Consulting Architect. Upwards of 600 pages 
and over 400 plates. Tenth edition, revised. Morocco flaps, $4.00. 

Chapter on Structural Iron rewritten, new chapters on Fire-proof Floors and Fire-proof 
Construction, Pin and Riveted Joints, Foundations, Bearing Power of Soils, Strength of 
Masonry, an Illustrated Glossary of Technical Terms used by Architects and Artisans, etc., 
etc. 

“ The book admirably fulfils its purpose of becoming an indispensable companion in the 
work of every architect, young or old.”— American Architect. 

“ We do not hesitate to recommend this new pocket book.”— Building. 

“ I think there is no book that has done so much to give architects an intelligent idea of 
safe construction as yours has; and with the improvements which the ninth edition con¬ 
tains, I consider it has no equal.”— George F. Hammond, F.A.I.A., Architect, Cleveland, 
Ohio. 


BERG.—Buildings and Structures of American Railroads. A Reference 
Book for Railroad Managers, Superintendents, Master Mechanics, Engineers, 
Architects, and Students. By Walter G. Berg, C.E., Principal Assistant 
Engineer Lehigh Valley Railroad. 4to, cloth, 534 pages, 700 illustrations, 
$7.50. 


Preface. XI. 

Chapter I. Watchman’s Shanties. XII. 

II. Section Tool Houses. XIII. 

III. Section Houses. XIV. 

IV. Dwelling Houses for Employes. XV. 

V. Sleeping Quarters, Reading Rooms, XVI. 

and Club Houses for Employes. XVII. 

VI. Snow Sheds and Protection Sheds XVIII. 
for Mountain Slides. 

VII. Signal Towers. XIX. 

VIII. Car Sheds and Car Cleaning Yards. XX. 

IX. Ash Pits. XXI. 

X. Ice Houses. XXII. 

Appendix. 


Sand Houses. 

Oil Stox-age Houses. 

Oil Mixing Houses. 

Water Stations. 

Coaling Stations for Locomotives. 
Engine Houses. 

Freight Houses. 

Platforms, Platform Sheds, and 
Shekel's. 

Combination Depots. 

Flag Depots. 

Local Passenger Depots. 

Tei'minal Passenger Depots. 


MONCKTON.—Stair-building in its various forms, and the One Plane 
Method of Hand Railing as applied to drawing Face Moulds, unfolding the 
centre line of Wreaths, giving lengths of Balusters under all Wreaths. Nu¬ 
merous Designs of Stairs, Newels, aud Balusters—for the use of Architects, 
Stair-builders, and Carpenters. By James II. Monckton. Illustrated by 8i 
full-page plates of working drawings, etc. Second edition. 4to, cloth extra, 
$4.00. 

“It may certainly be considered the champion work of its kind, and not only stair- 
buildei's, but architects, owe you a debt of gratitude for making their labors lighter in this 
regard.”— O. P. Hatfield. Architect. 


BOVEY.— 1 Theory of Structures and Strength of Materials. By Henry 
1 . Bovey, Dean of School of Applied Science, McGill University. 830 pages, 
ovo, cloth, $7.50. 


Contents : Framed Structures, Shearing Forces and Bending Moments, General Prin¬ 
ciples, Stresses, Strains, Earthwork and Retaining Walls. Friction Transverse Strene-th of 
\rched Ribs^’ ^ ors * on ’ Cylindrical and Spherical Boiiers, Bridges, Suspension Bridges, 



LANZA.—Applied Mechanics and Resistance of Materials. By Prof. 
G. Lanza. Showing Strains on Beams as determined by the Testing Machines 
of Watertown Arsenal and at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 
Practical and Theoretical. Designed for Engineers, Architects, and Students. 
With hundreds of illustrations. Sixth edition. 1 vol., 8vo, cloth, $7.50. 

“ The whole w ork is a valuable contribution to the subject of which it treats, and we can 
cordially recommend it.”— London Builder. 

MERRILL.—Stones for Building and Decoration. By George P. Merrill, 
Curator of Geology in the U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. Treat¬ 
ing of Geographical Distribution of the Minerals, Physical and Chemical 
Properties of Building and Decorative Stones. Systematic Description of 
Hocks, Quarries and Quarry Regions, Methods of Quarrying and Working, 
Stone-working Machines and Implements, Weathering, Selection, Protection, 
and Preservation of Building Stone. Appendices with Tables, Glossary, etc. 
Illustrated with eleven full-page plates. 8vo, cloth, $5.00. 

“ It will fill a long-felt want.”—Prof. H. S. Williams, Cornell University. 

“ Entire work is a valuable and timely one.' —Engineering Neivs. 

BAKER.—A Treatise on Masonry Construction. Containing Materials 
and Method of Testing Strength, etc.; Combinations of Materials —Com¬ 
position, etc. ; Foundations —Testing the Bearing Power of Soils, etc. ; 
Masonry Structure —Stability against Sliding, Overturning, Crushing, etc., 
etc., etc. Complete in one volume of about 500 pages, with 125 illustrations 
and eight or ten folding plates. By Ira O. Baker, C.E. Eighth edition, 
revised and enlarged. 8vo, cloth, $5.00. 

MERRIMAN.-A Text book on Retaining Walls and Masonry Dams, 
By Prof. Mansfield Merriman, Lehigh University. 8vo, cloth, $2.00. 

This work is designed not only as a text-book for students, but also for the use of civil 
engineers. 

Contents : Earthwork Slopes. The Lateral Pressure of Earth, Investigation of Retaining 
Walls, Design of Retaining Walls, Masonry Dams. 

PATTON.—A Practical Treatise on Foundations. By Wm. M. Patton, 
C.E. 8vo, cloth, $5.00. 

Contents: Foundations, Foundation Bed. Building Stone, Quarrying, Masonry, Arches, 
Keystones, Brick Box Culverts, Cement, Mortar, Sand, Stability of Piers, Arch Culverts, 
Cost of Work, Dimensions of Piers, Definitions of Parts of Arch, Timber Foundations, 
Coffer Dams, Open Caisson, Soundings or Borings, Framed Trestles, Timber Piers, Means 
of Preserving Timber Joints and Fastenings, etc., etc. 

GREENE.—Graphics for Engineers, Architects, and Builders. A Man¬ 
ual for Designers, and a Text-book for Scientific Schools. 

Trusses and Arches. Analyzed and Discussed by Graphical Methods by 
Chas. E. Greene. Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Michigan. 
In Three Parts. 

Part I. Roof Trusses. Diagrams for Steady Load, Snow, and Wind. 
New revised edition, 1890. 8vo, cloth, $1.25. 

Part II. Bridge Trusses. Single, Continuous, and Draw Spans ; Single 
and Multiple Systems ; Straight and Inclined Chords. Fourth edition, 1891. 
8vo, cloth, $2.50. 

Part III. Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone. For Roofs, Bridges, and 
Wall Openings ; Arched Ribs and Braced Arches ; Stresses from Wind and 
Change of Temperature. Second edition. 8vo, cloth, $2.50. 


Sent postpaid on receipt of price. 


JOHN WILEY & SONS, 

Scientific Publishers, = = = = = NEW YORK. 























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\ 
















































































